Abstract
Within micrometeorology the term modeling is not uniquely defined. It refers to various methods covering a range of complexity extending from simple regressions up to complicated numerical models . In applied meteorology (agro meteorology and hydro meteorology) simple analytical models are very common. Modeling of evaporation is particularly important but sophisticated numerical methods are not yet widely used in this research area. The following chapter describes different types of models and their limitations beginning with simple analytical methods up to numerical models of near-surface energy and matter transport. The application of models in heterogeneous terrain receives special attention and related flux averaging approaches are addressed in a separate subchapter.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Albertson JD and Parlange MB (1999) Natural integration of scalar fluxes from complex terrain. Adv Water Res. 23:239–252.
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D and Smith M (1998) Crop evaporation. FAO Irrigation Drainage Pap. 56:XXVI + 300 pp.
Allen RG, Walter IA, Elliott R, Howell T, Itenfisu D and Jensen M (2005) The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. Environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers, X + 59 pp.
Arya SP (2001) Introduction to Micrometeorology. Academic Press, San Diego, 415 pp.
Avissar R and Pielke RA (1989) A parametrization of heterogeneous land surface for atmospheric numerical models and its impact on regional meteorology. Monthly Weather Review. 117:2113–2136.
Baldocchi D (1988) A multi-layer model for estimating sulfor dioxid deposition to a deciduous oke forest canopy. Atmos Environm. 22:869–884.
Baldocchi D, Hicks BB and Camara P (1987) A canopy stomatal resistance model for gaseous deposition to vegetated surfaces. Atmos Environm. 21:91–101.
Ball JT, Woodrow IE and Berry JA (1987) A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions. In: Biggens J (ed.), Progress in Photosynthesis Research. Vol. IV. Martinus Nijhoff Publisher, Dordrecht, IV.5.221–IV.5.224.
Batchvarova E and Gryning S-E (1991) Applied model for the growth of the daytime mixed layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 56:261–274.
Behrens J, Rakowsky N, Hiller W, Handorf D, Läuter M, Päpke J and Dethloff K (2005) amatos: parallel adaptive mesh generator for atmospheric and oceanic simulation. Ocean Modelling. 10:171–183.
Beljaars ACM (1995) The parametrization of surface fluxes in large scale models under free convection. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 121:255–270.
Beljaars ACM and Holtslag AAM (1991) Flux parametrization over land surfaces for atmospheric models. J Appl Meteorol. 30:327–341.
Beljaars ACM and Viterbo P (1998) Role of the boundary layer in a numerical weather prediction model. In: Holtslag AAM and Duynkerke PG (eds.), Clear and Cloudy Boundary Layers, vol VNE 48. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, 287–304.
Best MJ, Beljaars A, Polcher J and Viterbo P (2004) A proposed structure for coupling tiled surfaces with the planetary boundary layer. J Hydrometeorol. 5:1271–1278.
Biermann T, Babel W, Ma W, Chen X, Thiem E, Ma Y and Foken T (2014) Turbulent flux observations and modelling over a shallow lake and a wet grassland in the Nam Co basin, Tibetan Plateau. Theor Appl Climat. 116:301–316.
Bjutner EK (1974) Teoreticeskij rascet soprotivlenija morskoj poverchnosti (Theoretical calculation of the resistance at the surface of the ocean). In: Dubov AS (ed.), Processy perenosa vblizi poverchnosti razdela okean - atmosfera (Exchange processes near the ocean - atmosphere interface). Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 66–114.
Blackadar AK (1997) Turbulence and Diffusion in the Atmosphere. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 185 pp.
Blümel K (1998) Estimation of sensible heat flux from surface temperature wave and one-time-of-day air temperature observations. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 86:193–232.
Blyth EM (1995) Comments on ‘The influence of surface texture on the effective roughness length’ by H. P. Schmid and D. Bünzli (1995, 121, 1–21). Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 121:1169–1171.
Brötz B, Eigenmann R, Dörnbrack A, Foken T and Wirth V (2014) Early-morning flow transition in a valley in low-mountain terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 152:45–63.
Brutsaert WH (1982) Evaporation into the atmosphere: Theory, history and application. D. Reidel, Dordrecht, 299 pp.
Burridge DM and Gadd AJ (1977) The Meteorological Office operational 10-level numerical weather prediction model (December 1975). Meteorological Office Technical Notes. 34:39 pp.
Csanady GT (2001) Air-sea interaction, Laws and mechanisms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, 239 pp.
Davidan IN, Lopatuhin LI and Rogkov VA (1985) Volny v okeane (Waves in the ocean). Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 256 pp.
Deardorff JW (1972) Numerical investigation of neutral und unstable planetary boundary layer. J Atmos Sci. 29:91–115.
DeBruin HAR (1983) A model for the Priestley–Taylor parameter α. J Climate Appl Meteorol. 22:572–578.
DeBruin HAR and Holtslag AAM (1982) A simple parametrization of the surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat during daytime compared with the Penman–Monteith concept. J Climate Appl Meteorol. 21:1610–1621.
Dommermuth H and Trampf W (1990) Die Verdunstung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Zeitraum 1951-1980, Teil 1. Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach, 10 pp.
Doorenbos J and Pruitt WO (1977) Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation Drainage Pap. 24, 2nd ed.:145 pp.
DVWK (1996) Ermittlung der Verdunstung von Land- und Wasserflächen. DVWK-Merkblätter zur Wasserwirtschaft. 238:134 pp.
Falge EM, Ryel RJ, Alsheimer M and Tenhunen JD (1997) Effects on stand structure and physiology on forest gas exchange: A simulation study for Norway spruce. Trees. 11:436–448.
Farquhar GD, von Caemmerer S and Berry JA (1980) A biochemical of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation in leaves of C3 species. Planta. 149:78–90.
Foken T (1978) The molecular temperature boundary layer of the atmosphere over various surfaces. Archiv Meteorol Geophys Bioklim, Ser. A. 27:59–67.
Foken T (1984) The parametrisation of the energy exchange across the air-sea interface. Dynamics Atm Oceans. 8:297–305.
Foken T (1986) An operational model of the energy exchange across the air-sea interface. Z Meteorol. 36:354–359.
Foken T (1996) Turbulenzexperiment zur Untersuchung stabiler Schichtungen. Ber Polarforschung. 188:74–78.
Foken T (2002) Some aspects of the viscous sublayer. Meteorol Z. 11:267–272.
Foken T (2016) Angewandte Meteorologie. Springer-Spektrum, Berlin, Heidelberg, 394 pp.
Foken T, Kitajgorodskij SA and Kuznecov OA (1978) On the dynamics of the molecular temperature boundary layer above the sea. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 15:289–300.
Foken T, Dlugi R and Kramm G (1995) On the determination of dry deposition and emission of gaseous compounds at the biosphere-atmosphere interface. Meteorol Z. 4:91–118.
Friedrich K, Mölders N and Tetzlaff G (2000) On the influence of surface heterogeneity on the Bowen-ratio: A theoretical case study. Theor Appl Climat. 65:181–196.
Garratt JR (1992) The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 316 pp.
Geernaert GL (ed) (1999) Air-Sea Exchange: Physics, Chemistry and Dynamics. Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, 578 pp.
Göckede M and Foken T (2001) Ein weiterentwickeltes Holtslag-van Ulden-Schema zur Stabilitätsparametrisierung in der Bodenschicht. Österreichische Beiträge zu Meteorologie und Geophysik. 27:(Extended Abstract and pdf-file on CD) 210.
Göckede M, Markkanen T, Mauder M, Arnold K, Leps JP and Foken T (2005) Validation of footprint models using natural tracer measurements from a field experiment. Agrical Forest Meteorol. 135:314–325.
Grimmond CSB, King TS, Roth M and Oke TR (1998) Aerodynamic roughness of urban areas derived from wind observations. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 89:1–24.
Groß G (1993) Numerical Simulation of Canopy Flows. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg pp.
Gryning S-E, Batchvarova E, Brümmer B, Jørgensen H and Larsen S (2007) On the extension of the wind profile over homogeneous terrain beyond the surface boundary layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 124:251–268.
Gusev EM and Nasonova ON (2010) Modelirovanie teplo- i vlagoobmena poverchnosti sushi s atmosferoj (Modelling of the heat and moisture exchange of land surfaces with the atmosphere). Nauka, Moskva, 327 pp.
Handorf D, Foken T and Kottmeier C (1999) The stable atmospheric boundary layer over an Antarctic ice sheet. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 91:165–186.
Hasager CB and Jensen NO (1999) Surface-flux aggregation in heterogeneous terrain. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 125:2075–2102.
Hasager CB, Nielsen NW, Jensen NO, Boegh E, Christensen JH, Dellwik E and Soegaard H (2003) Effective roughness calculated from satellite-derived land cover maps and hedge-information used in a weather forecasting model. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 109:227–254.
Haude W (1955) Bestimmung der Verdunstung auf möglichst einfache Weise. Mitt Dt Wetterdienst. 11:24 pp.
Herzog H-J, Vogel G and Schubert U (2002) LLM - a nonhydrostatic model applied to high-resolving simulation of turbulent fluxes over heterogeneous terrain. Theor Appl Climat. 73:67–86.
Hess GD (2004) The neutral, barotropic planetary layer capped by a low-level inversion. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 110:319–355.
Hicks BB, Baldocchi DD, Meyers TP, Hosker jr. RP and Matt DR (1987) A preliminary multiple resistance routine for deriving dry deposition velocities from measured quantities. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 36:311–330.
Hillel D (1980) Applications of Soil Physics. Academic Press, New York, 385 pp.
Högström U (1988) Non-dimensional wind and temperature profiles in the atmospheric surface layer: A re-evaluation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 42:55–78.
Holtslag AAM and van Ulden AP (1983) A simple scheme for daytime estimates of the surface fluxes from routine weather data. J Climate Appl Meteorol. 22:517–529.
Houghton JT (2015) Global Warming, The complete Briefing. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 396 pp.
Inclán MG, Forkel R, Dlugi R and Stull RB (1996) Application of transilient turbulent theory to study interactions between the atmospheric boundary layer and forest canopies. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 79:315–344.
Jacobs AFG, Heusinkveld BG and Nieveen JP (1998) Temperature behavior of a natural shallow water body during a summer periode. Theor Appl Climat. 59:121–127.
Jacobson MZ (2005) Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modelling. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 813 pp.
Jarvis PG (1976) The interpretation of the variations in leaf water potential and stomatal conductance found in canopies in the field. Phil Trans Roy. Soc London B: Biolog Sci. 273:593–610.
Kaimal JC and Finnigan JJ (1994) Atmospheric Boundary Layer Flows: Their Structure and Measurement. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 289 pp.
Kanani-Sühring F and Raasch S (2015) Spatial variability of scalar concentrations and fluxes downstream of a clearing-to-forest transition: A Large-Eddy Simulation study. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 155:1–27.
Kantha LH and Clayson CA (2000) Small scale processes in geophysical fluid flows. Academic Press, San Diego, 883 pp.
Kitajgorodskij SA and Volkov JA (1965) O rascete turbulentnych potokov tepla i vlagi v privodnom sloe atmosfery (The calculation of the turbulent fluxes of temperature and humidity in the atmosphere near the water surface) Izv AN SSSR, Fiz Atm Okeana. 1:1317–1336.
Klaassen W, van Breugel PB, Moors EJ and Nieveen JP (2002) Increased heat fluxes near a forest edge. Theor Appl Climat. 72:231–243.
Kramm G and Foken T (1998) Ucertainty analysis on the evaporation at the sea surface. Second Study Conference on BALTEX, Juliusruh, 25–29 May 1998. BALTEX Secretariat, pp. 113–114.
Kramm G, Foken T, Molders N, Muller H and Paw U KT (1996a) The sublayer-Stanton numbers of heat and matter for different types of natural surfaces. Contr Atmosph Phys. 69:417–430.
Kramm G, Beier M, Foken T, Müller H, Schröder P and Seiler W (1996b) A SVAT-skime for NO, NO2, and O3 - Model description and test results. Meteorol Atmos Phys. 61:89–106.
Kramm G, Dlugi R and Mölders N (2002) Sublayer-Stanton numbers of heat and matter for aerodynamically smooth surfaces: basic considerations and evaluations. Meteorol Atmos Phys. 79:173–194.
Landau LD and Lifschitz EM (1987) Fluid Mechanics. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 539 pp.
Leclerc MY and Foken T (2014) Footprints in Micrometeorology and Ecology. Springer, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, XIX, 239 pp.
Letzel MO, Krane M and Raasch S (2008) High resolution urban large-eddy simulation studies from street canyon to neighbourhood scale. Atmos Environm. 42:8770–8784.
Leuning R (1995) A critical appraisal of a combined stomatal-photosynthesis model for C3 plants. Plant, Cell & Environment. 18:339–355.
Lilly DK (1967) The representation of small-scale turbulence in numerical simulation experiments. In: Goldstein HH (ed). IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on Environmental Science, Yorktown Heights, N.Y., November 14-16, 1966 1967, pp. IBM Form No. 320-1951, 1195–1210.
Louis JF (1979) A parametric model of vertical fluxes in the atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 17:187–202.
Louis JF, Tiedtke M and Geleyn JF (1982) A short history of the PBL parametrization at ECMWF. Workshop on Boundary Layer parametrization, Reading1982. ECMWF, pp. 59–79.
Lüers J and Bareiss J (2010) The effect of misleading surface temperature estimations on the sensible heat fluxes at a high Arctic site – the Arctic Turbulence Experiment 2006 on Svalbard (ARCTEX-2006). Atmos Chem Phys. 10:157–168.
Mahrt L (1996) The bulk aerodynamic formulation over heterogeneous surfaces. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 78:87–119.
Mallick K, Boegh E, Trebs I, Alfieri JG, Kustas WP, Prueger JH, Niyogi D, Das N, Drewry DT, Hoffmann L and Jarvis AJ (2015) Reintroducing radiometric surface temperature into the Penman–Monteith formulation. Water Resources Res. 51:6214–6243.
Mangarella PA, Chambers AJ, Street RL and Hsu EY (1972) Laboratory and field interfacial energy and mass flux and prediction equations. J Geophys Res. 77:5870–5875.
Mangarella PA, Chambers AJ, Street RL and Hsu EY (1973) Laboratory studies of evaporation and energy transfer through a wavy air-water interface. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 3:93–101.
Mengelkamp H-T, Warrach K and Raschke E (1999) SEWAB a parameterization of the surface energy and water balance for atmospheric and hydrologic models. Adv Water Res. 23:165–175.
Meyers TP and Paw U KT (1986) Testing a higher-order closure model for modelling airflow within and above plant canopies. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 37:297–311.
Meyers TP and Paw U KT (1987) Modelling the plant canopy microenvironment with higher-order closure principles. Agrical Forest Meteorol. 41:143–163.
Mix W, Goldberg V and Bernhardt K-H (1994) Numerical experiments with different approaches for boundary layer modelling under large-area forest canopy conditions. Meteorol Z. 3:187–192.
Moene AF and van Dam JC (2014) Transport in the Atmosphere-Vegetation-Soil Continuum. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 436 pp.
Moeng C-H (1998) Large eddy simulation of atmospheric boundary layers. In: Holtslag AAM and Duynkerke PG (eds.), Clear and cloudy boundary layers, vol VNE 48. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Science, Amsterdam, 67–83.
Moeng C-H and Wyngaard JC (1989) Evaluation of turbulent transport and dissipation closure in second-order modelling. J Atmos Sci. 46:2311–2330.
Moeng C-H, Sullivan PP and Stevens B (2004) Large-eddy simulation of cloud-topped mixed layers. In: Fedorovich Eet al (eds.), Atmospheric Turbulence and mesoscale Meteorology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 95–114.
Mölders N (2001) Concepts for coupling hydrological and meteorological models. Wiss. Mitt. aus dem Inst. für Meteorol. der Univ. Leipzig und dem Institut für Troposphärenforschung e. V. Leipzig. 22:1–15.
Mölders N (2012) Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes, Impact on climate and air quality. Springer, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York, 189 pp.
Mölders N and Kramm G (2014) Lectures in Meteorology. Springer, Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London XIX, 591 pp.
Mölders N, Raabe A and Tetzlaff G (1996) A comparison of two strategies on land surface heterogeneity used in a mesoscale ß meteorological model. Tellus. 48A:733–749.
Monson R and Baldocchi D (2014) Terrestrial Biosphere-Atmosphere Fluxes. Cambridge University Press, New York, XXI, 487 pp.
Monteith JL (1965) Evaporation and environment. Symp Soc Exp Biol. 19:205–234.
Montgomery RB (1940) Observations of vertical humidity distribution above the ocean surface and their relation to evaporation. Pap Phys Oceanogr Meteorol. 7:1–30.
Müller C (1999) Modelling Soil-Biosphere Interaction. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 354 pp.
Ohmura A, Steffen K, Blatter H, Greuell W, Rotach M, Stober M, Konzelmann T, Forrer J, Abe-Ouchi A, Steiger D and Neiderbäumer G (1992) Greenland Expedition, Progress Report No. 2, April 1991 to Oktober 1992. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, 94 pp.
Owen PR and Thomson WR (1963) Heat transfer across rough surfaces. J Fluid Mech. 15:321–334.
Panin GN (1985) Teplo- i massomen meszdu vodoemom i atmospheroj v estestvennych uslovijach (Heat- and mass exchange between the water and the atmosphere in the nature). Nauka, Moscow, 206 pp.
Panin GN, Nasonov AE and Souchintsev MG (1996a) Measurements and estimation of energy and mass exchange over a shallow see. In: Donelan M (ed.), The air-sea interface, Miami, 489–494.
Panin GN, Tetzlaff G, Raabe A, Schönfeld H-J and Nasonov AE (1996b) Inhomogeneity of the land surface and the parametrization of surface fluxes - a discussion. Wiss Mitt Inst Meteorol Univ Leipzig und Inst Troposphärenforschung Leipzig. 4:204–215.
Panin GN, Nasonov AE, Foken T and Lohse H (2006) On the parameterization of evaporation and sensible heat exchange for shallow lakes. Theor Appl Climat. 85:123–129.
Panofsky HA (1973) Tower micrometeorology. In: Haugen DA (ed.), Workshop on Micrometeorology. American Meteorological Society, Boston, 151–176.
Peña A, Gryning S-E and Hasager C (2010) Comparing mixing-length models of the diabatic wind profile over homogeneous terrain. Theor Appl Climat. 100:325–335.
Penman HL (1948) Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. Proceedings Royal Society London. A193:120–195.
Priestley CHB and Taylor JR (1972) On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters. Monthly Weather Review. 100:81–92.
Pyles RD, Weare BC and Paw U KT (2000) The UCD Advanced Canopy-Atmosphere-Soil Algorithm: comparisons with observations from different climate and vegetation regimes. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 126:2951–2980.
Raasch S and Schröter M (2001) PALM - A large-eddy simulation model performing on massively parallel computers. Meteorol Z. 10:363–372.
Reichardt H (1951) Vollständige Darstellung der turbulenten Geschwindigkeitsverteilung in glatten Röhren. Z angew Math Mech. 31:208–219.
Richter D (1977) Zur einheitlichen Berechnung der Wassertemperatur und der Verdunstung von freien Wasserflächen auf statistischer Grundlage. Abh Meteorol Dienstes DDR. 119:35 pp.
Rigby JR, Yin J, Albertson J and Porporato A (2015) Approximate Analytical Solution to Diurnal Atmospheric Boundary-Layer Growth Under Well-Watered Conditions. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 156:73–89.
Roll HU (1948) Wassernahes Windprofil und Wellen auf dem Wattenmeer. Ann Meteorol. 1:139–151.
Rutgersson A and Sullivan PP (2005) Investigating the effects of water waves on the turbulence structure in the atmosphere using direct numerical simulations. Dynamics Atm Oceans. 38:147–171.
Schädler G, Kalthoff N and Fiedler F (1990) Validation of a model for heat, mass and momentum exchange over vegetated surfaces using LOTREX-10E/HIBE88 data. Contr Atmosph Phys. 63:85–100.
Schlegel F, Stiller J, Bienert A, Maas H-G, Queck R and Bernhofer C (2015) Large-Eddy Simulation study of the effects on flow of a heterogeneous forest at sub-tree resolution. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 154:27–56.
Schlichting H and Gersten K (2006) Grenzschicht-Theorie. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 799 pp.
Schmid HP and Bünzli D (1995a) The influence of the surface texture on the effective roughness length. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 121:1–21.
Schmid HP and Bünzli D (1995b) Reply to comments by E. M. Blyth on ‘The influence of surface texture on the effective roughness length’. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 121:1173–1176.
Schmidt H and Schumann U (1989) Coherent structures of the convective boundary layer derived from large eddy simulations. J Fluid Mech. 200:511–562.
Schrödter H (1985) Verdunstung, Anwendungsorientierte Meßverfahren und Bestimmungsmethoden. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 186 pp.
Schumann U (1989) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent diffusion with chemical reactions in the convective boundary layer. Atmos Environm. 23:1713–1727.
Seibert P, Beyrich F, Gryning S-E, Joffre S, Rasmussen A and Tercier P (2000) Review and intercomparison of operational methods for the determination of the mixing height. Atmos Environm. 34:1001–1027.
Sellers PJ and Dorman JL (1987) Testing the simple biospere model (SiB) for use in general circulation models. J Climate Appl Meteorol. 26:622–651.
Shukauskas A and Schlantschiauskas A (1973) Teploodatscha v turbulentnom potoke shidkosti (Heat exchange in the turbulent fluid). Izd. Mintis, Vil’njus, 327 pp.
Smagorinsky J (1963) General circulation experiments with the primitive equations: I. The basic experiment. Monthly Weather Review. 91:99–164.
Smith SD, Fairall CW, Geernaert GL and Hasse L (1996) Air-sea fluxes: 25 years of progress. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 78:247–290.
Sodemann H and Foken T (2004) Empirical evaluation of an extended similarity theory for the stably stratified atmospheric surface layer. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 130:2665–2671.
Sponagel H (1980) Zur Bestimmung der realen Evapotranspiration landwirtschaftlicher Kulturpflanzen. Geologisches Jahrbuch. F9:87 pp.
Staudt K, Serafimovich A, Siebicke L, Pyles RD and Falge E (2011) Vertical structure of evapotranspiration at a forest site (a case study). Agrical Forest Meteorol. 151:709–729.
Stull RB (1988) An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology. Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, Boston, London, 666 pp.
Stull R and Santoso E (2000) Convective transport theory and counter-difference fluxes. 14th Symposium on Boundary Layer and Turbulence, Aspen, CO., 7.-11. Aug. 2000. Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, pp. 112–113.
Sverdrup HU (1937/38) On the evaporation from the ocean. J. Marine Res. 1:3–14.
Taylor PA (1987) Comments and further analysis on the effective roughness length for use in numerical three-dimensional models: A research note. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 39:403–418.
Tennekes H (1973) A Model for the Dynamics of the Inversion Above a Convective Boundary Layer. J Atmos Sci. 30:558–567.
Troen I and Lundtang Peterson E (1989) European Wind Atlas. Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, 656 pp.
Turc L (1961) Évaluation des besoins en eau d’irrigation évapotranspiration potentielle. Ann Agron. 12:13–49.
van Bavel CHM (1986) Potential evapotranspiration: The combination concept and its experimental verification. Water Resources Res. 2:455–467.
Vollmer L, van Dooren M, Trabucchi D, Schneemann J, Steinfeld G, Witha B, Trujillo J and Kühn M (2015) First comparison of LES of an offshore wind turbine wake with dual-Doppler lidar measurements in a German offshore wind farm. J Phys: Conf Ser. 625:012001.
von Kármán T (1934) Turbulence and skin friction. J. Aeronautic Sci. 1:1–20.
Wendling U, Schellin H-G and Thomä M (1991) Bereitstellung von täglichen Informationen zum Wasserhaushalt des Bodens für die Zwecke der agrarmeteorologischen Beratung. Z Meteorol. 41:468–475.
Yokoyama O, Gamo M and Yamamoto S (1979) The vertical profiles of the turbulent quantities in the atmospheric boundary layer. J Meteor Soc Japan. 57:264–272.
Zilitinkevich SS and Calanca P (2000) An extended similarity theory for the stably stratified atmospheric surface layer. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 126:1913–1923.
Zilitinkevich SS and Esau IN (2005) Resistance and heat transfer laws for stable and neutral planetary layers: Old theory advanced and re-evaluated. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 131:1863–1892.
Zilitinkevich SS and Mironov DV (1996) A multi-limit formulation for the equilibrium depth of a stable stratified atmospheric surface layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 81:325–351.
Zilitinkevich SS, Perov VL and King JC (2002) Near-surface turbulent fluxes in stable stratification: Calculation techniques for use in general circulation models. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc. 128:1571–1587.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Foken, T. (2017). Modeling of the Energy and Matter Exchange. In: Micrometeorology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25440-6_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25440-6_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-25439-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-25440-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)