Abstract
The aim of the present chapter is to present a conceptual framework for examining associations between eating, drinking, and well-being. The approach is exemplified by considering two topics which have received considerable attention, namely, the effects of consumption of breakfast and ingestion of caffeine. It is argued that other aspects of diet can be considered in a similar way once the volume of research reaches appropriate levels. The first feature of the current approach to well-being is that it is multifactorial. Research on diet and health has confirmed the view that there is more to health than the absence of disease. Being able to function efficiently, both mentally and physically, is an important part of well-being. Similarly, the absence of negative affective states (negative mood, stress, anxiety, and depression) and the presence of positive emotions (positive affect, happiness, and life satisfaction) have long been recognized as key features of well-being. Previous research has investigated the relationship between diet and well-being, with some topics such as the effect of a healthy diet (e.g., consumption of breakfast, fruit and vegetables, and oily fish) or a bad diet (e.g., junk food) being widely studied. Other aspects of eating and drinking require further attention (e.g., eating super-foods such as broccoli; effects of BMI; emotional eating; and consumption of foods which change the gut microbiome – prebiotics and probiotics). There are three major problems with most of the previous research. First, the different dietary topics are often studied in isolation, which clearly misrepresents the real-life situation. Secondly, well-being is influenced by other established predictors (psychosocial factors such as stress, social support, personality and coping styles; health-related behaviors such as exercise; and sleep), and these are rarely controlled for. Thirdly, most of the research involves cross-sectional studies. What is now needed are multivariate, longitudinal studies of eating, drinking, and well-being. Such research will elucidate underlying biological mechanisms and develop practical approaches of preventing and managing negative effects and maximizing positive ones.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: The Student Well-Being Process Questionnaire
The following questions contain a number of single-item measures of aspects of your life as a student and feelings about yourself. Many of these questions will contain examples of what thoughts/behaviors the question is referring to which are important for understanding the focus of the question but should be regarded as guidance rather than strict criteria. Please try to be as accurate as possible, but avoid thinking too much about your answers; your first instinct is usually the best.
1. I have been feeling in good spirits (e.g., I feel optimistic about the future, feel good about myself, and feel confident in my abilities.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
2. Overall, I feel that I have low self-esteem (e.g., At times, I feel that I am no good at all, at times I feel useless, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
3. On a scale of one to ten, how depressed would you say you are in general? (e.g., feeling “down,” no longer looking forward to things or enjoying things that you used to) |
Not at all depressed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely depressed |
4. I have been feeling good about my relationships with others (e.g., getting along well with friends/colleagues, feeling loved by those close to me). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
5. I feel able to relax when I want to. |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
6. I feel energetic and interested when I need to be. |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
7. I don’t really get on well with people (e.g., I tend to get jealous of others, I tend to get touchy, I often get moody.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
8. Thinking about myself and how I normally feel, in general, I mostly experience positive feelings (e.g., I feel alert, inspired, determined, attentive.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
9. In general, I feel optimistic about the future (e.g., I usually expect the best, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad; It’s easy for me to relax). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
10. I am confident in my ability to solve problems that I might face in life (e.g., I can usually handle whatever comes my way; If I try hard enough, I can overcome difficult problems, and I can stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
11. I feel that I am laid-back about things (e.g., I do just enough to get by, I tend to not complete what I’ve started, I find it difficult to get down to work.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
12. I am not interested in new ideas (e.g., I tend to avoid philosophical discussions, I don’t like to be creative, I don’t try to come up with new perspectives on things.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
13. Overall, I feel that I have positive self-esteem (e.g., On the whole I am satisfied with myself, I am able to do things as well as most other people, I feel that I am a person of worth.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
14. I feel that I have the social support I need (e.g., There is someone who will listen to me when I need to talk, there is someone who will give me good advice, there is someone who shows me love and affection.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
15. Thinking about myself and how I normally feel, in general, I mostly experience negative feelings (e.g., I feel upset, hostile, ashamed, and nervous.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
16. I feel that I have a disagreeable nature (e.g., I can be rude, harsh, and unsympathetic.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
Coping Style |
Problem Focused |
17.When I find myself in stressful situations, I take a problem-focused approach (e.g., I take one step at a time, I change things about the situation or myself to deal with the issue, I don’t let my feelings interfere too much.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
Seeks Social Support |
18.When I find myself in stressful situations, I look for social support (e.g., I talk to someone to get more information, I ask someone for advice, I talk to someone about how I’m feeling.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
Blame Self |
19.When I find myself in stressful situations, I blame myself (e.g., I criticize or lecture myself, I realize I brought the problem on myself.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
Wishful Thinking |
20. When I find myself in stressful situations, I wish for things to improve (e.g., I hope a miracle will happen, I wish I could change things about myself or circumstances, I daydream about a better situation.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
Avoidance |
21. When I find myself in stressful situations, I try to avoid the problem (e.g., I keep things to myself, I go on as if nothing has happened, I try to make myself feel better by eating/drinking/smoking.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
22. I prefer to keep to myself (e.g., I don’t talk much to other people, I feel withdrawn, I prefer not to draw attention to myself.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
23. I feel that I have an agreeable nature (e.g., I feel sympathy toward people in need, I like being kind to people, I’m cooperative.) |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
24. In general, I feel pessimistic about the future (e.g., If something can go wrong for me it will, I hardly ever expect things to go my way, I rarely count on good things happening to me.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
25. I feel that I am a conscientious person (e.g., I am always prepared, I make plans and stick to them, I pay attention to details.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
26. I feel that I can get on well with others (e.g., I’m usually relaxed around others, I tend not to get jealous, I accept people as they are.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
27. I feel that I am open to new ideas (e.g., I enjoy philosophical discussion, I like to be imaginative, I like to be creative.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
28. Overall, I feel that I am satisfied with my life (e.g., In most ways my life is close to my ideal, so far I have gotten the important things I want in life.). |
Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agree strongly |
29. On a scale of one to ten, how happy would you say you are in general? |
Extremely unhappy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely happy |
30. On a scale of one to ten, how anxious would you say you are in general? (e.g., feeling tense or “wound up,” unable to relax, feelings of worry or panic). |
Not at all anxious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely anxious |
31. In general, how would you rate your physical health? |
Extremely poor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Extremely good |
32. Overall, how stressful is your life? |
Not at all stressful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very stressful |
Please consider the following elements of student life and indicate overall to what extent they have been a part of your life over the past 6 months. Remember to use the examples as guidance rather than trying to consider each of them specifically: |
33. Challenges to your development (e.g., important decisions about your education and future career, dissatisfaction with your written or mathematical ability, struggling to meet your own or others’ academic standards). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
34. Time pressures (e.g., too many things to do at once, interruptions of your school work, a lot of responsibilities). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
35. Academic dissatisfaction (e.g., disliking your studies, finding courses uninteresting, dissatisfaction with school). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
36. Romantic problems (e.g., decisions about intimate relationships, conflicts with boyfriend’s/girlfriend’s family, conflicts with boyfriend/girlfriend). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
37. Societal annoyances (e.g., getting ripped off or cheated in the purchase of services, social conflicts over smoking, disliking fellow students). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
38. Social mistreatment (e.g., social rejection, loneliness, being taken advantage of). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
39. Friendship problems (e.g., conflicts with friends, being let down or disappointed by friends, having your trust betrayed by friends). |
Not at all part of my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very much part of my life |
Please state how much you agree or disagree with the following statements: |
40. There is a person or people in my life who would provide tangible support for me when I need it (e.g., money for tuition or books, use of their car, furniture for a new apartment). |
Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Strongly agree |
41. There is a person or people in my life who would provide me with a sense of belonging (e.g., I could find someone to go to a movie with me, I often get invited to do things with other people, I regularly hang out with friends.). |
Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Strongly agree |
42. There is a person or people in my life with whom I would feel perfectly comfortable discussing any problems I might have (e.g., difficulties with my social life, getting along with my parents, sexual problems). |
Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Strongly agree |
Appendix 2: Breakfast and caffeine questions from the Diet and Behaviour Survey
In the last 6 months:
1. How often did you eat breakfast? (Please tick one box.) | ||||
Every day | Most days (3–6) | Once or twice a week | Once a month | Never |
□1 | □2 | □3 | □4 | □5 |
2. How often did you drink coffee? | ||||
Every day | Most days (3–6) | Once or twice a week | Once a month | Never |
□1 | □2 | □3 | □4 | □5 |
3. How often did you drink tea? | ||||
Every day | Most days (3–6) | Once or twice a week | Once a month | Never |
□1 | □2 | □3 | □4 | □5 |
4. How often did you drink cola (Coca-Cola, Pepsi, other cola)? | ||||
Every day | Most days (3–6) | Once or twice a week | Once a month | Never |
□1 | □2 | □3 | □4 | □5 |
5. How often did you drink energy drinks like Red Bull, Monster, etc.? | ||||
Every day | Most days (3–6) | Once or twice a week | Once a month | Never |
□1 | □2 | □3 | □4 | □5 |
The next set of questions asks about how much you eat and drink (Put 0 if you don’t eat or drink that product): | ||||
6. Energy drinks _______ cans a week. | ||||
7. If you drink energy drinks, which brand do you usually drink? ___________ | ||||
8. Colas________________cans a week. | ||||
9. Coffee_______________cups a week. | ||||
10. Tea_______________cups a week. | ||||
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Smith, A.P. (2020). Eating, Drinking, and Well-Being. In: Meiselman, H. (eds) Handbook of Eating and Drinking. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75388-1_174-1
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