Abstract
In this chapter, Lee returns to the rites of the Passover (Exod 11–13) by way of the tale of rape and murder in Judges 19: the former forms the literary horizon for the latter, construing the violence of the story as a sordid perversion of the Passover. The view to the texts passes through Asian American hermeneutics. Across the doors of the biblical texts and the US cultural scape, Lee foregrounds the marginalization and ambivalence—in Homi Bhabha’s sense of the term—inherent to an Asian American experience that can turn victims to victimizers. Predator and prey become interchangeable positions. From biblical texts to the desperate negotiations of ghettoized communities, then, readers must confront the ‘hybridized’ state of the colonized heart, an ambivalent heart both marginalized and marginalizing.
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Notes
- 1.
Tat-Siong Benny Liew, What is Asian American Biblical Hermeneutics? Reading the New Testament (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2008), 13. ‘Panethnic’ as a qualifier of Asian American identity, at once evocative of familial resemblance and cultural multiplicity, is a term invoked in Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992). More concise and topic-focused treatments of Asian American thinking in biblical interpretation and/or theology are available in Mary F. Foskett and Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan (ed.), Ways of Being, Ways of Reading: Asian American Biblical Interpretation (St. Louis: Chalice, 2006); Fumitaka Matsuoka and Eleazar S. Fernandez (ed.), Realizing the America of Our Hearts: Theological Voices of Asian Americans (St. Louis: Chalice, 2003); Peter C. Phan and Jung Young Lee (ed.), Journeys at the Margin: Toward an Autobiographical Theology in American-Asian Perspective (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1999). Beyond the fray of biblical and theological studies is a growing volume of literature on Asian American studies. An excellent description of the current situation in Asian American experience, though drawn largely from West Coast perspectives, is Mia Tuan’s Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites: The Asian Ethnic Experience Today (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1998). For historical treatments of the same matter with inroads into the socioeconomic and political dimensions to the experience, see Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York and London: Little, Brown and Company, 1989). Also helpful on this front, with a focus on Chinese American experiences, are the essays in Arif Dirlik (ed.), Chinese on the American Frontier (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001). David L. Eng, Racial Castration: Managing Masculinity in Asian America (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001) is a veritable entrée to the complexities of psychoanalytic theory, sexual orientation, and racial formation in casting Asian American masculine identity.
- 2.
Tat-Siong Benny Liew, ‘When Margins Become Common Ground: Questions of and for Biblical Studies,’ in Still at the Margins: Biblical Scholarship Fifteen Years after ‘Voices from the Margin’ (ed. R. S. Sugirtharah; London; New York: T & T Clark, 2008), 48.
- 3.
Randall C. Bailey, Tat-Siong Benny Liew and Fernando F. Segovia, ‘Toward Minority Biblical Criticism: Framework, Contours, Dynamics,’ in They Were All Together in One Place? Toward Minority Biblical Criticism (ed. Randall C. Bailey, Tat-Siong Benny Liew and Fernando F. Segovia; Semeia Studies 57; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009), 27. The call for contextualization and a broadening, cross-disciplinary view to minority biblical interpretation persists in Tat-Siong Benny Liew, ‘What Has Been Done? What Can We Learn? Racial/Ethnic Minority Readings of the Bible in the United States,’ in The Future of the Biblical Past: Envisioning Biblical Studies on a Global Key (ed. Roland Boer and Fernando F. Segovia; Semeia Studies 66; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2012), 273–87.
- 4.
Ibid., 26.
- 5.
Ibid., 28. My emphasis.
- 6.
Ibid., 31.
- 7.
Tat-Siong Benny Liew, ‘Colorful Readings: Racial/Ethnic Minority Readings of the New Testament in the United States,’ in Soundings in Cultural Criticism: Perspectives and Methods in Culture, Power, and Identity in the New Testament (ed. Francisco Lozada Jr. and Greg Carey; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013), 178. Liew’s sentiments on the dynamic, intersectional perspectivism to Asian American biblical criticism reflect a consensus in the field and apply across the range of minoritized views in biblical and theological studies. See, for example, Uriah Yong-Hwan Kim, ‘The Realpolitik of Liminality in Josiah’s Kingdom and Asian America,’ in Ways of Being, Ways of Reading: Asian American Biblical Interpretation (ed. Mary F. Foskett and Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan; St. Louis: Chalice, 2006), 84–98; Roy I. Sano, ‘From Context to Context: Cognitive Dissonance,’ in Realizing the America of Our Hearts: Theological Voices of Asian Americans (ed. Fumitaka Matsuoka and Eleazar S. Fernandez; St. Louis: Chalice, 2003), 115–28; Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, ‘Diasporic Reading of a Diasporic Text: Identity Politics and Race Relations and the Book of Esther,’ in The Bible and Postcolonialism, 3 (ed. Fernando F. Segovia; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 161–73; Sze-Kar Wan, ‘Does Diaspora Identity Imply Some Sort of Universality? An Asian-American Reading of Galatians,’ in The Bible and Postcolonialism, 3 (ed. Fernando F. Segovia; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 107–31; Peter C. Phan, ‘Betwixt and Between: Doing Theology with Memory and Imagination,’ in Journeys at the Margin: Toward an Autobiographical Theology in American-Asian Perspective (ed. Peter C. Phan and Jung Young Lee; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999), 113–33; Fernando F. Segovia, ‘Toward Intercultural Criticism: A Reading Strategy from the Diaspora,’ in Reading from this Place: Social Location and Biblical Interpretation in Global Perspective (ed. Fernando F. Segovia and Mary Ann Tolbert; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 303–30.
- 8.
Sze-Kar Wan, ‘Betwixt and Between: Toward a Hermeneutic of Hyphenation,’ in Ways of Being, Ways of Reading: Asian American Biblical Interpretation (ed. Mary F. Foskett and Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan; St. Louis: Chalice, 2006), 147.
- 9.
Ibid., 146. The emphasis is original.
- 10.
Peter C. Phan, ‘The Dragon and the Eagle: Toward a Vietnamese American Theology,’ in Realizing the America of Our Hearts: Theological Voices of Asian Americans (ed. Fumitaka Matsuoka and Eleazar S. Fernandez; St. Louis: Chalice, 2003), 165. The title to Wan’s article echoes Phan, ‘Betwixt and Between.’
- 11.
Phan, ‘The Dragon and the Eagle,’ 169.
- 12.
Rita Nakashima Brock, ‘Cooking Without Recipes: Interstitial Integrity,’ in Off the Menu: Asian and Asian North American Women’s Religion and Theology (ed. Rita Nakashima Brock, Jung Ha Kim, Kwok Pui-Lan and Seung Ai Yang; Louisville and London: Westminster John Knox, 2007), 136.
- 13.
Ibid., 136.
- 14.
See above, n. 8.
- 15.
Liew, What is Asian American Biblical Hermeneutics?, 2–9.
- 16.
Ibid., 16.
- 17.
For Lisa Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 105, the poly-visional and dynamic disposition is necessary to countenance a discursive hegemony that is itself neither fixed nor monolithic, but always cast ‘in the context of ongoing conflicts and pressures from a variety of locations.’
- 18.
Kuan, ‘Diasporic Reading,’ 165–67.
- 19.
On the heterogeneity of US Asian-origin collectivity in articulations of Asian American identity, see Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1996), 60–83. A poignant meditation on the impact of intergenerational differences in Asian American encounters with the Bible is Frank M. Yamada, ‘Constructing Hybridity and Heterogeneity: Asian American Biblical Interpretation from a Third-Generation Perspective,’ in Ways of Being, Ways of Reading: Asian American Biblical Interpretation (ed. Mary F. Foskett and Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan; St. Louis: Chalice, 2006), 164–77.
- 20.
R.S. Sugirtharajah, ‘Orientalism, Ethnonationalism and Transnationalism: Shifting Identities and Biblical Interpretation,’ in Ethnicity and the Bible (ed. Mark G. Brett; Biblical Interpretation Series 19; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 427.
- 21.
R. Radhakrishnan, ‘Is the Ethnic “Authentic” in the Diaspora?’ in The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s (ed. Karin Aguilar-San Juan; Boston: South End Press, 1994), 223.
- 22.
Wan, ‘Betwixt and Between,’ 148–49.
- 23.
Sang Hyun Lee, ‘Marginality as Coerced Liminality: Toward an Understanding of the Context of Asian American Theology,’ in Realizing the America of Our Hearts: Theological Voices of Asian Americans (ed. Fumitaka Matsuoka and Eleazar S. Fernandez; St. Louis: Chalice, 2003), 25–26.
- 24.
Fernando F. Segovia, ‘Toward a Hermeneutics of the Diaspora: A Hermeneutics of Otherness and Engagement,’ in Reading from this Place: Social Location and Biblical Interpretation in the United States (ed. Fernando F. Segovia and Mary Ann Tolbert; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 63, 66.
- 25.
Ibid., 62 n.11.
- 26.
Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), 100–101.
- 27.
Ibid., 122–23.
- 28.
Ibid., 124–25.
- 29.
Ibid., 128, 125. Emphasis original.
- 30.
Ibid., 159
- 31.
Ibid., 162.
- 32.
Ibid., 162.
- 33.
Stephen D. Moore, Empire and Apocalypse: Postcolonialism and the New Testament (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2006), 90.
- 34.
Ibid., 33.
- 35.
Ibid., 37.
- 36.
John W. Marshall, ‘Hybridity and Reading Romans 13,’ Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31 (2008): 169.
- 37.
David Eng’s critique of Lonny Kaneko’s ‘The Shoyu Kid’ in his Racial Castration, 104–36, speaks of the psychic investment of subaltern subjects—the interned Japanese American lads of the tale in this instance—in the idealized imaginary of white America. The play of the boys at assimilation forges a frontier over and against the Japanese American experience of national disenfranchisement (pp. 118–19). Its momentary, ludic pretense to power shows itself ludicrous under the crushing gaze of a hegemonic vision that hails the subaltern ego as disparaged alien.
- 38.
Robert J.C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 161.
- 39.
Frantz Fanon (The Wretched of the Earth [trans. Richard Philcox; New York: Grove, 1963], 5) makes a similar point: ‘The gaze that the colonized subject casts at the colonist’s sector is a look of lust, a look of envy. Dreams of possession. Every type of possession: of sitting at the colonist’s table and sleeping in his bed, preferably with his wife. The colonized man is an envious man.’
- 40.
Bhabha, The Location of Culture, 63–64. Emphasis in original.
- 41.
Unlike the Hebrew, the Septuagint (to v. 28) places the woman’s expiration at the door of the Ephraimite elder.
- 42.
Weston W. Fields, ‘The Motif “Night as Danger” Associated with Three Biblical Destruction Narratives,’ in ‘Sha‘arei Talmon’: Studies in the Bible, Qumran, and the Ancient Near East Presented to Shemaryahu Talmon (ed. Michael Fishbane and Emanuel Tov; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 23 n 16.
- 43.
Jan P. Fokkelman, ‘Structural Remarks on Judges 9 and 19,’ in ‘Sha‘arei Talmon’: Studies in the Bible, Qumran, and the Ancient Near East Presented to Shemaryahu Talmon (ed. Michael Fishbane and Emanuel Tov; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 41–45.
- 44.
Andrew Hock-Soon Ng, ‘Revisiting Judges 19: A Gothic Perspective,’ Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32 (2007): 207. See also Mieke Bal, Death and Dissymmetry: The Politics of Coherence in the Book of Judges (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 123–24.
- 45.
Ng, ‘Revisiting Judges 19,’ 203–13.
- 46.
Alice Bach, ‘Rereading the Body Politic: Women and Violence in Judges 21,’ in Women in the Hebrew Bible: A Reader (ed. Alice Bach; New York: Routledge, 1999), 397.
- 47.
Phyllis Trible, Texts of Terror: Literary-Feminist Readings of Biblical Literature (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 74. See also Fokkelman, ‘Structural Remarks,’ 44.
- 48.
Bal, Death and Dissymmetry, 126.
- 49.
My emphasis. The NRSV’s rendition here follows the Greek. The Hebrew text of the Massoretic variety places the note of astonishment—not a question—squarely in the mouths of the tribes receiving the dismembered portions.
- 50.
Fokkelman, ‘Structural Remarks,’ 43. Trent C. Butler, Judges (Word Biblical Commentary 8; Nashville and Dallas: Thomas Nelson, 2009), 416, 428–29, cites Fokkelman with approval on this point.
- 51.
Here, I follow the Hebrew text. On the imputed haughty, even deceptive, demeanor behind the quip, see Pamela Tamarkin Reis, ‘The Levite’s Concubine: New Light on a Dark Story,’ Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 20 (2006):137; Jaqueline E. Lapsley, Whispering the Word: Hearing Women’s Stories in the Old Testament (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2005), 43; Tammi J. Schneider, Judges (Collegeville, MN; Liturgical Press, 2000), 259. The recommendation of Robert G. Boling, Judges (Anchor Bible 6a; Garden City: Doubleday, 1975), 275, and J. Alberto Soggin, Judges (trans. J. S. Bowden; Old Testament Library; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981), 287, to follow the Septuagint at this point—‘my house’ instead of ‘the house of YHWH’—responds to the oddity of the phrase. But of course, the incongruity of the Hebrew raises the visibility of the phrase as a pointer to another text.
- 52.
Gale A. Yee, ‘Ideological Criticism: Judges 17–21 and the Dismembered Body,’ in Judges and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies (ed. Gale A. Yee; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 165. See also Adele Reinhartz, ‘Why Ask My Name?’ Anonymity and Identity in Biblical Narrative (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 80.
- 53.
Boling, Judges, 276–77. Ilse Müllner, ‘Lethal Differences: Sexual Violence as Violence against Others in Judges 19,’ in Judges: A Feminist Companion to the Bible, 2 nd Series (ed. Athalya Brenner; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 140–41, takes this interpretive trend a touch further in finding the ritualized butchery an excorcism of the Levite’s ‘strangeness.’ Camaraderie with Gibeah ‘in the house,’ therefore, is the ostensible accomplishment of the slaying. By contrast, Alice A. Keefe, ‘Rapes of Women/Wars of Men,’ Semeia 61 (1993): 85 n. 58, finds in the performance a signal of Israel’s dissolution.
- 54.
Bal, Death and Dissymmetry, 121, 127.
- 55.
Patrick S. Cheng, ‘Multiplicity and Judges 19: Constructing a Queer Asian Pacific American Biblical Hermeneutic,’ Semeia 90–91 (2002): 121–22.
- 56.
Müllner, ‘Lethal Differences,’ 136. The Levite’s sense of belonging, as Müllner clarifies (pp. 135–36), is mitigated by Deuteronomy’s inclusion of Levites with other vulnerable, landless parties (Deut 14: 27–29; 16:14). The gesture is, at best, a projection from an interstitial, liminal space. For a sustained treatment of the story that suspends the Levite between margin and center, see David Z. Moster, ‘The Levite of Judges 19–21,’ Journal of Biblical Literature 134 (2015): 721–30.
- 57.
Michael Carden, ‘Homophobia and Rape in Sodom and Gibeah: A Response to Ken Stone,’ Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 82 (1999): 91–92, explains this oddity by understanding the Levite as the object of the mob’s opprobrium, thus making sense of the offer of his wife, minus the host’s daughter, as the sole victim.
- 58.
Karla G. Bohmbach, ‘Conventions/Contraventions: The Meaning of Public and Private for the Judges 19 Concubine,’ Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 83 (1999): 88–89.
- 59.
Trible, Texts of Terror, 72. Lapsley, Whispering the Word, 43, notes the contrasting statement by the narrator in verse 15 (‘but no one took them in to spend the night’), which retains the plural pronominal reference for the party in need of a place to stay.
- 60.
On the complexity to the appellation and the effect of the diversity of terms for the woman, see Cheng, ‘Multiplicity,’ 121–24; Schneider, Judges, 248–56; Susan Ackerman, Warrior, Dancer, Seductress, Queen: Women in Judges and Biblical Israel (New York and London: Doubleday, 1998), 236–37; J. Cheryl Exum, Fragmented Women: Feminist (Sub)versions of Biblical Narratives (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 163; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 176. For a lucid survey of the patriarchal household, including the place of secondary wives, with reference to biblical sources and the cuneiform laws, see Tikva Frymer-Kensky’s ‘Patriarchal Family Relationships and Near Eastern Law’ in her volume Studies in Bible and Feminist Criticism (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2006), 225–37. An overview of the category (pylgš) reaching back into Jewish commentary from Late Antiquity is available in Diane Kriger, ‘A Re-Embracement of Judges 19: Challenging Public-Private Boundaries,’ in Vixens Disturbing Vineyards: Embarrassment and Embracement of Scripture. Festshrift in Honor of Harry Fox (lebeit Yoreh) (ed. Tzemah Yoreh, Audrey Glazer and Justin Jaron Lewis; Boston: Academic Studies, 2010), 59–63.
- 61.
Here I depart from the translation of the NRSV which follows the tradition in Greek. The semantic range to ‘playing the whore’—sexual promiscuity, exogamy, a pining for strange gods—is a subject of interest in Chapter 2. On the nuances to the verb see also Naomi Koltun-Fromm, Hermeneutics of Holiness: Ancient Jewish and Christian Notions of Sexuality and Religious Community (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 47–52; Randall C. Bailey, ‘They’re Nothing but Incestuous Bastards: The Polemical Use of Sex and Sexuality in Hebrew Canon Narratives,’ in Reading from this Place: Social Location and Biblical Interpretation in the United States (ed. Fernando F. Segovia and Mary Ann Tolbert; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 121–38; Phyllis Bird, ‘“To Play the Harlot”: An Inquiry into an Old Testament Metaphor,’ in Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel (ed. Peggy L. Day; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 75–94.
- 62.
Ng, ‘Revisiting Judges 19,’ 204–06.
- 63.
Ibid., 206.
- 64.
Wroth as the motive for the woman’s hasty departure is the reading from one of the Greek texts (SeptuagintA). An Aramaic Targum (Jonathan), the Vulgate and Josephus (Jewish Antiquities 5.2.8) follow suit. Modern interpreters who find this rendition plausible include Erik Eynikel ‘Judges 19–21, An “Appendix:” Rape, Murder, War and Abduction,’ Communio Viatorum 47 (2005): 104; Boling, Judges, 273–74; Daniel I. Block, Judges, Ruth (New American Commentary 6; Nashville: B & H, 1999), 523; Soggin, Judges, 284. Pamela Reis Tamarkin, in radical departure from interpretive currents, reads the Hebrew implicating the Levite as a pimp: ‘She played the whore on his account (‛lyw),’ taking the preposition ‛l to indicate cause (Reis, ‘The Levite’s Concubine,’ 129).
- 65.
For a concise treatment of commentary on the passage in this period, see John L. Thompson, Writing the Wrongs: Women of the Old Testament among Biblical Commentators from Philo through the Reformation (Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 208–14.
- 66.
Danna Nolan Fewell and David M. Gunn, Gender, Power and Promise: The Subject of the Bible’s First Story (Nashville: Abingdon, 1993), 133. See also Eynikel ‘Judges 19–21,’ 104; Bohmbach, ‘Conventions/Contraventions,’ 90; Lapsley, Whispering the Word, 37–38 n.12.
- 67.
See also Lapsley, Whispering the Word, 38; Ng, ‘Revisiting Judges,’ 204–05 n. 6; Ken Stone, ‘Gender and Homosexuality in Judges 19: Subject-Honor, Object-Shame?’ Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 67 (1995): 91–92, 96; Exum, Fragmented Women, 179; Barry G. Webb, The Book of Judges: An Integrated Reading (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 46; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 188.
- 68.
See DCH 3: 123; HALOT 1: 275; BDB 276; TDOT 4: 99–104; CAD 21: 85; AHw 3: 1519–20.
- 69.
Koala Jones-Warsaw, ‘Toward a Womanist Hermeneutic: A Reading of Judges 19–21,’ Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Center 22 (1994): 20–21. Jones-Warsaw spies also a connection to the case of the suspicion of a bride’s pre-marital coitus in Deuteronomy 22:13–21, another text in the medley of rites and laws of our literary backdrop.
- 70.
Butler, Judges, 416. My emphasis.
- 71.
Such is the judgment of Keefe, ‘Rapes of Women/Wars of Men,’ 93–94. See also Yee, ‘Ideological Criticism,’ 165.
- 72.
Cheng, ‘Multiplicity and Judges 19,’ 122–24.
- 73.
Ibid., 124–25.
- 74.
Liew, ‘When Margins Become Common Ground,’ 45.
- 75.
Gale A. Yee, ‘“She Stood in Tears Amid the Alien Corn”: Ruth, the Perpetual Foreigner and Model Minority,’ in They Were All Together in One Place? Toward Minority Biblical Criticism (ed. Randall C. Bailey, Tat-siong Benny Liew and Fernando F. Segovia; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009), 119–40.
- 76.
Ibid., 120.
- 77.
Ibid., 121–22.
- 78.
Frank M. Yamada, ‘What Does Manzanar Have to Do with Eden? A Japanese American Interpretation of Genesis 2–3,’ in They Were All Together in One Place? Toward Minority Biblical Criticism (ed. Randall C. Bailey, Tat-siong Benny Liew and Fernando F. Segovia; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009), 97–117; Kuan, ‘Diasporic Reading,’ 161–73; Liew, What Is Asian American Biblical Hermeneutics?, 18–33.
- 79.
Lee, ‘Marginality as Coerced Liminality,’ 11–28.
- 80.
Ibid., 23–24.
- 81.
Ibid., 24.
- 82.
The point comes across clearly in Bret Harte’s popular poem ‘The Heathen Chinee’ (1870). The work expresses well Euro-American anxiety over cheap and abundant Chinese labor with a focus on perceived (negative) essential traits to the Chinese. For a contextualized analysis of the poem, see Ronald Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 222–29.
- 83.
Peggy Kamuf, Signature Pieces on the Institution of Authorship (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1988), 79–99. Other critical and discursive forays into Rousseau’s recasting of Judges 19–21 in varying scholarly milieux include Thomas M. Kavanagh, ‘Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraim: Dream, Text, and Synthesis,’ Eighteenth-Century Studies 16 (1982–1983): 141–61; Mieke Bal, ‘A Body of Writing: Judges 19,’ Continuum 1 (1991): 110–26; Michael S. Kochin, ‘Living with the Bible: Jean-Jacques Rousseau Reads Judges 19–21,’ Hebraic Political Studies 3 (2007): 301–25. Bal’s essay reads Kamuf’s reading of Rousseau and Judges. Rousseau’s paraphrase of the biblical story reworks the events of Judges 19–21. First published posthumously in 1781, the text, with critical notation, is available in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oeuvres complètes (ed. B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond; 4 vols.; Paris: Gallimard, 1959), 2:1205–1223. A translation in English is Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Essay on the Origin of Languages and Writings Related to Music (trans., ed. John T. Stott; The Collected Writings of Rousseau 7; Hanover and London: University Press of New England for Dartmouth College, 1998), 351–65. All subsequent references to Rousseau’s composition (within parentheses) are to pages in this translation.
- 84.
Kamuf, Signature Pieces, 80, 83; Kavanagh, ‘Rousseau’s Lévite d’Ephraim,’ 145–46. Kavanagh makes the connection to the circumstances of the harried flight by his assessment that Rousseau’s palpable outrage through the piece ‘derives from the sublimation of a more profound, properly unconscious need to consolidate his status as victim’ (p. 146; Kavanagh’s emphasis). In the same vein is Kochin’s judging the story ‘a slice, or limb, from the body of text that is Rousseau’s written self-preservation…that his readers are to reassemble according to his own directions in order to comprehend him’ (p. 305). Rousseau’s refashioning of the narrative, in Kochin’s view, is autobiographical, a ‘symbol-laden’ story ‘of unjust persecution.’
- 85.
Kamuf, Signature Pieces, 86–87.
- 86.
A specific tension in Kamuf’s focus is between the exhortation to ‘pardon the guilty’ (pardonner au coupable) and, yet, several lines later, the admonishment for not punishing ‘the crimes of your brethren’ (les crimes de vos frères).
- 87.
Kamuf, Signature Pieces, 87.
- 88.
Ibid., 83. The emphasis is mine.
- 89.
Trible, ‘Texts of Terror,’ 83.
- 90.
Kamuf, Signature Pieces, 86. Müllner, ‘Lethal Differences,’ 139, reaches the same conclusion, finding in the vile violations no delimitation ‘to sexual violence by men as offenders or towards women as victims.’ The story, thus, enacts a victimization in which ‘strangeness [read: foreignness] and femininity overlap in the sexuality of violence’ (p. 140).
- 91.
Kamuf, Signature Pieces, 98. For a reading of Shakespeare’s The Tempest that finds Caliban the subordinated ‘native’ other—under Prospero’s thumb—turning imperialist and male chauvinist, see Laura E. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender, and Empire Building (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 16–17. Relevant to our counter-hegemonic reading of Judges is Donaldson’s view on Caliban’s assault of Miranda as an ‘overdetermined participation’ in the imperialist project, both ‘victim and victimizer’ at once in the gendered and racialized power dynamics of the play.
- 92.
Bal, ‘A Body of Writing,’ 118, 113. Emphasis in original.
- 93.
Ibid., 115.
- 94.
Jones-Warsaw, ‘Toward a Womanist Hermeneutic,’ 18–35.
- 95.
Ibid., 21–22.
- 96.
Ibid., 27.
- 97.
David Penchansky, ‘Staying the Night: Intertextuality in Genesis and Judges,’ in Reading between Texts: Intertextuality and the Hebrew Bible (ed. Danna Nolan Fewell; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992), 83.
- 98.
Kuan, ‘Diasporic Reading,’ 165–66. Emphasis original.
- 99.
Ibid., 167.
- 100.
Liew, What is Asian American Biblical Hermeneutics?, 26–28.
- 101.
Ibid., 27.
- 102.
Eleazar S. Fernandez, ‘Exodus-toward-Egypt: Filipino-Americans’ Struggle to Realize the Promised Land in America,’ in Voices from the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World (ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah; 3rd edn.; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1970), 242–57.
- 103.
Ibid., 248–49.
- 104.
David Mura, ‘A Shift in Power, a Sea Change in the Arts: Asian American Constructions,’ in The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s (ed. Karin Aguilar-San Juan; Boston: South End Press, 1994), 184–85.
- 105.
Ibid., 187.
- 106.
Such bouts of self-degradation as a concomitant of an attraction for the cultural metropole are common in Asian American musings on their interstitial existence. See, for example, Brock, ‘Cooking without Recipes,’ 131–33; Tuan, Forever Foreigners, 147–51; Jung-Young Lee, Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 42–47. A poignant expression of the sentiment is Nelli Wong, ‘When I was Growing Up,’ in This Bridge Called my Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (ed. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa; New York: Women of Color Press, 1981), 7–8. For Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, The Power of the Word: Scripture and the Rhetoric of Empire (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007), 38, the condition is an effect of cultural and political domination leading to an ‘internalized oppression, which cannot be reduced to low self-esteem of individuals but creates a public mentality that accepts such negative labeling and practices of injustice as “naturally given” and “common sense.”’ The corollary is a ‘horizontal violence, contempt and internal conflict among the minoritized and oppressed’ that causes them ‘to act against their own interests and to search for individual solutions rather than to name systemic domination.’
- 107.
Jonathan Tran, ‘Why Asian American Christianity Has No Future: The Over Against, Leaving Behind, and Separation from of Asian American Christian Identity,’ SANACS Journal 2 (2010): 13–56.
- 108.
Ibid., 19–21.
- 109.
Ibid., 19.
- 110.
Ibid., 20. For similar assessments of current conditions, see Lai Ling Elizabeth Ngan, ‘Bitter Melon, Bitter Delight: Reading Jeremiah Reading Me,’ in Off the Menu: Asian and Asian North American Women’s Religion and Theology (ed. Rita Nakashima Brock, Jung Ha Kim, Kwok Pui-Lan and Seung Ai Yang; Louisville and London: Westminster John Knox, 2007), 178; Tuan, Forever Foreigners, 147–51.
- 111.
Lowe, Immigrant Acts, 72.
- 112.
Dennis T. Olson, ‘Literary and Rhetorical Criticism,’ in Methods for Exodus (ed. Thomas B. Dozeman; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 27–29. Olson’s deconstructive take on the tale builds on a review of arguments by Edward Greenstein (‘The Firstborn Plague and the Reading Process,’ in Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom [ed. David P. Wright, et al.; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995], 555–68). See, also, Robert Allen Warrior, ‘A Native American Perspective: Canaanites, Cowboys, and Indians,’ in Voices from the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World (ed. R.S. Sugirtharajah; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1970), 235–41.
- 113.
Bhabha, The Location of Culture, 126, 141.
- 114.
Ibid., 2. Text in italics is Bhabha’s.
- 115.
Ibid., 6.
- 116.
Ibid., 153.
- 117.
Ibid., 156.
- 118.
Ibid., 159–60.
- 119.
Ibid., 160.
- 120.
Chela Sandoval, Methodology of the Oppressed (Theory out of Bounds 18; Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 34.
- 121.
Ibid., 34.
- 122.
Eng, Racial Castration, 22.
- 123.
Eleazar S. Fernandez, ‘Multiple Locations-Belongings and Power Differentials: Lenses for a Liberating Biblical Hermeneutic,’ in Soundings in Cultural Criticism: Perspectives and Methods in Culture, Power, and Identity in the New Testament (ed. Francisco Lozada Jr. and Greg Cary; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013), 146–47.
- 124.
Ibid., 147.
- 125.
Ibid., 147.
- 126.
Sandoval, Methodology of the Oppressed, 33–34.
- 127.
Ibid., 34, 35.
- 128.
Ibid., 27.
- 129.
Greer Anne Wenh-In Ng, ‘Land of Maple and Lands of Bamboo,’ in Realizing the America of Our Hearts: Theological Voices of Asian Americans (ed. Fumitaka Matsuoka and Eleazar S. Fernandez; St. Louis: Chalice, 2003), 104.
- 130.
Phan, ‘The Dragon and the Eagle,’168–69.
- 131.
Radhakrishnan, ‘Is the Ethnic “Authentic” in the Diaspora?,’ 228–29.
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Lee, B. (2017). Coming Home: Through the Doors of Ephraim and Egypt. In: Marginal(ized) Prospects through Biblical Ritual and Law. Postcolonialism and Religions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55095-4_5
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