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Head Injury Research: Experimental Studies

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The Biomechanics of Impact Injury

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Abstract

In retrospect, the experimental research carried out in head injury had the biomechanical objectives that were outlined in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.6) although they were not clearly explained until much later. The research began with the work of Gurdjian and associates in the mid-1950s followed by the work of Ommaya and associates. The purpose of their work was to try to understand the mechanisms of brain injury. Suffering from the lack of what we now call modern technology, the researchers used head acceleration and intracranial pressure as possible parameters that might be able to explain how the brain is injured. These were the only measurable parameters available at the time, and they were used to try to explain how brain injury occurs. Out of that research came the two competing theories of brain injury—the linear and angular acceleration mechanisms.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA

    Albert I. King

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  1. Albert I. King
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Appendices

Questions for Chapter 3

  1. 3.1.

    Select the statement that is NOT valid, as it relates to brain injury:

    1. [ ] (i)

      The dura and arachnoid are separated by two layers of border cells

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Rupture of the bridging vein in the border cell region is not a prime cause of subdural hematomas

    3. [ ] (iii)

      It is valid to model the space between the dura and arachnoid as a Newtonian fluid

    4. [ ] (iv)

      The space between the pia and the arachnoid contains cerebral spinal fluid

    5. [ ] (v)

      The radial adhesion (normal traction resistance) between the dura and arachnoid border is low

  2. 3.2.

    For a direct blunt impact to the head, the initial pressure relative to ambient atmospheric pressure developed at the contrecoup site is:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Always negative

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Always positive

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Always below the vapor pressure of water

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Always above −50 kPa

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  3. 3.3.

    For a direct blunt impact to the head, the initial pressure relative to ambient atmospheric pressure developed at the coup site is:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Always negative

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Always positive

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Always below the pressure of one atmosphere

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Always above 50 kPa

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  4. 3.4.

    Brain injury resulting from blunt impact can take the form of:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Diffuse axonal injury

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Contusion of the brain surface

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Laceration of the brain

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Injury to the corpus callosum

    5. [ ] (v)

      All of the above

  5. 3.5.

    Brain injury due to a blunt impact can take the form of:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Intracerebral hemorrhage

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Subdural hematoma

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Subarachnoid hematoma

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Injury to the brain stem

    5. [ ] (v)

      All of the above

  6. 3.6.

    For a direct blunt impact to the head, the initial pressure relative to ambient atmospheric pressure developed at the coup site is:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Always negative

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Always positive

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Always less than the pressure in the corpus callosum

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Always above 50 kPa

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  7. 3.7.

    For a direct blunt impact to the head with both linear and angular acceleration , large brain motions occur

    1. [ ] (i)

      On the surface of the hemispheres

    2. [ ] (ii)

      In the cerebellum

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Near the center of the brain above the brain stem

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Near the sagittal sinus

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  8. 3.8.

    The motion of the brain resulting from a blunt impact takes the form of:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Horizontal (transverse plane) motion

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Sagittal plane motion

    3. [ ] (iii)

      A Figure 8 pattern

    4. [ ] (iv)

      (i) and (ii)

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  9. 3.9.

    The mechanism of brain injury due to linear acceleration is due to

    1. [ ] (i)

      The high strain rate it causes in the brain

    2. [ ] (ii)

      The high strain it causes in the brain

    3. [ ] (iii)

      The high pressure developed in the cerebellum

    4. [ ] (iv)

      An as yet unknown mechanism

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  10. 3.10.

    The mechanism of brain injury due to a blast pressure wave is due to

    1. [ ] (i)

      The high strain rate it causes in the brain

    2. [ ] (ii)

      The high strain it causes in the brain

    3. [ ] (iii)

      The shear stresses developed in the cerebellum

    4. [ ] (iv)

      An as yet unknown mechanism

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  11. 3.11.

    The mechanism of brain injury due to a blast pressure wave can be prevented by

    1. [ ] (i)

      The use of a standard army helmet

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Turning away from the blast

    3. [ ] (iii)

      By wearing body armor that protects the chest and abdomen

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Facing the blast

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  12. 3.12.

    The neutral density accelerometer used in some of the tests on cadaveric heads

    1. [ ] (i)

      Has a single axis of sensitivity

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Is over 5 mm in size in its smallest dimension

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Can measure angular and linear acceleration simultaneously

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Is a tri-axial accelerometer

    5. [ ] (v)

      Can be purchased commercially from an instrumentation company

  13. 3.13.

    Select the statement that is invalid, as it relates to brain injury:

    1. [ ] (i)

      To generate high shear strains in the brain, it is necessary to subject the head to angular accelerations

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Mild traumatic brain injury cannot occur unless the victim was unconscious for a short time

    3. [ ] (iii)

      A head impact resulting in a linear acceleration of about 100 g and a rotational acceleration of about 6000 rad/s2 can cause a mild traumatic brain injury

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Subdural hematoma is due solely to bridging vein ruptures

    5. [ ] (v)

      All of the above

  14. 3.14.

    Finite element models of the head, simulating blunt impact can assume a rigid skull. One of the drawbacks is:

    1. [ ] (i)

      It cannot be used to simulate head impacts involving direct head contact with a rigid object

    2. [ ] (ii)

      It cannot be used to simulate indirect head impacts involving large rotational accelerations

    3. [ ] (iii)

      It may not predict brain motion accurately for non-contact head impacts

    4. [ ] (iv)

      It cannot be used to simulate a helmeted head impact

    5. [ ] (v)

      (i), (iii), and (iv)

  15. 3.15.

    Neutral density accelerometers described by Hardy et al. (1997)

    1. [ ] (i)

      Are 5 mm in diameter

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Are 3-mm cubes

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Are uniaxial sensors

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Are sold by more than one commercial accelerometer manufacturers

    5. [ ] (v)

      Tend to lacerate the brain if the impact is too severe

  16. 3.16.

    Select the statement that is not valid, as it relates to brain injury:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) occurs right after head impact

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Brain motion within an intact human skull during an impact is more sensitive to angular acceleration than to linear acceleration

    3. [ ] (iii)

      DAI can only occur in the white matter of the central nervous system (CNS)

    4. [ ] (iv)

      The tolerance of the brain to angular acceleration is 1800 rad/s2

    5. [ ] (v)

      If HIC is under 1000, there can still be brain injury

  17. 3.17.

    The dynamic cortical deformation method of studying brain injury:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Is aimed at studying diffuse injury of the neurons

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Applies a positive pressure pulse to the brain through a hole in the skull

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Does not cause contusion to the brain

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Causes massive brain hemorrhage

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  18. 3.18.

    The controlled cortical impact method of studying brain injury:

    1. [ ] (i)

      Was invented by researchers at Wayne State University

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Cannot be used on rats

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Uses a negative pressure pulse to injure the brain

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Uses a positive pressure pulse to injure the brain

    5. [ ] (v)

      None of the above

  19. 3.19.

    The following statements refer to blunt impact to the head. Which one is correct?

    1. [ ] (i)

      High-speed X-ray data on brain motion are not available from cadavers

    2. [ ] (ii)

      High-speed X-ray data on brain motion are available from living animals

    3. [ ] (iii)

      High-speed X-ray data on brain motion are available from living human subjects

    4. [ ] (iv)

      High-speed X-ray data on brain motion are now available in the literature

    5. [ ] (v)

      High speed X-ray data on brain motion can only be acquired at 50 frames/s or slower

  20. 3.20.

    It was shown by Lissner and Gurdjian in 1960 that pressure pulses without head acceleration can cause cerebral concussion. This conclusion was arrived at based on

    1. [ ] (i)

      Head impacts on dogs using a hammer

    2. [ ] (ii)

      Application of negative pressure pulses to the brain surface through a hole in the skull

    3. [ ] (iii)

      Application of positive pressure pulses to the brain surface through a hole in the skull

    4. [ ] (iv)

      Impact to the brain with a metal impactor through a hole in the skull

    5. [ ] (v)

      All of the above

Answers to Problems by Chapter

Prob

Ans

1

(iii)

2

(i)

3

(ii)

4

(v)

5

(v)

6

(ii)

7

(iii)

8

(iii)

9

(iv)

10

(iv)

11

(v)

12

(iv)

13

(iv)

14

(v)

15

(ii)

16

(iv)

17

(v)

18

(v)

19

(iv)

20

(iii)

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King, A.I. (2018). Head Injury Research: Experimental Studies. In: The Biomechanics of Impact Injury. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49792-1_3

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