Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Basic Vaccine Immunology

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Introduction to Molecular Vaccinology

  • 1696 Accesses

Abstract

The most outstanding aspects of the immune responses following a vaccination are described here. But it is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe in detail all immunological functions. We focus on a more general description on what is known of the vaccine immunity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Thaa, B., Sinhadri, B.C., Tielesch, C., Krause, E., Veit, M.: Signal peptide cleavage from GP5 of PRRSV: a minor fraction of molecules retains the decoy epitope, a presumed molecular cause for viral persistence. PLoS One 8, e65548 (2013). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065548

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Ito, H., Watanabe, S., Takada, A., Kawaoka, Y.: Ebola virus glycoprotein: proteolytic processing, acylation, cell tropism, and detection of neutralizing antibodies. J. Virol. 75, 1576–1580 (2001). doi:10.1128/JVI.75.3.1576-1580.2001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Oldstone, M.B.: Molecular mimicry and immune-mediated diseases. FASEB J. 12, 1255–1265 (1998)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Jones, D.: Reverse vaccinology on the cusp. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 11, 175–176 (2012). doi:10.1038/nrd3679

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kratky, W., Reis e Sousa, C., Oxenius, A., Sporri, R.: Direct activation of antigen-presenting cells is required for CD8+ T cell priming and tumor vaccination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 17414–17419 (2011). doi:10.1073/pnas.1108945108

    Google Scholar 

  6. Takeda, K., Akira, S.: Toll-like receptors in innate immunity. Int. Immunol. 17, 1–14 (2005). doi:10.1093/intimm/dxh186

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ziegler-Heitbrock, L., et al.: Nomenclature of monocytes and dendritic cells in blood. Blood 116, e74–e80 (2010). doi:10.1182/blood-2010-02-258558

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Khazen, W., et al.: Expression of macrophage-selective markers in human and rodent adipocytes. FEBS Lett. 579, 5631–5634 (2005). doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2005.09.032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ding, Q., et al.: Regulatory B cells are identified by expression of TIM-1 and can be induced through TIM-1 ligation to promote tolerance in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 121, 3645–3656 (2011). doi:10.1172/JCI46274

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Gottfried-Blackmore, A., et al.: Acute in vivo exposure to interferon-gamma enables resident brain dendritic cells to become effective antigen presenting cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106, 20918–20923 (2009). doi:10.1073/pnas.0911509106

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Ochoa, M.T., Loncaric, A., Krutzik, S.R., Becker, T.C., Modlin, R.L.: “Dermal dendritic cells” comprise two distinct populations: CD1+ dendritic cells and CD209+ macrophages. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 2225–2231 (2008). doi:10.1038/jid.2008.56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Ouchi, T., et al.: Langerhans cell antigen capture through tight junctions confers preemptive immunity in experimental staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. J. Exp. Med. 208, 2607–2613 (2011). doi:10.1084/jem.20111718

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Zozulya, A.L., et al.: Intracerebral dendritic cells critically modulate encephalitogenic versus regulatory immune responses in the CNS. J. Neurosci. 29, 140–152 (2009). doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2199-08.2009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Barchet, W., Cella, M., Colonna, M.: Plasmacytoid dendritic cells – virus experts of innate immunity. Semin. Immunol. 17, 253–261 (2005). doi:10.1016/j.smim.2005.05.008

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hart, D.N., McKenzie, J.L.: Interstitial dendritic cells. Int. Rev. Immunol. 6, 127–138 (1990)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kushwah, R., Hu, J.: Complexity of dendritic cell subsets and their function in the host immune system. Immunology 133, 409–419 (2011). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03457.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Vremec, D., et al.: Production of interferons by dendritic cells, plasmacytoid cells, natural killer cells, and interferon-producing killer dendritic cells. Blood 109, 1165–1173 (2007). doi:10.1182/blood-2006-05-015354

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Chopin, M., Allan, R.S., Belz, G.T.: Transcriptional regulation of dendritic cell diversity. Front Immunol. 3, 26 (2012). doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00026

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Cambi, A., Figdor, C.G.: Dual function of C-type lectin-like receptors in the immune system. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 15, 539–546 (2003)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Flacher, V., et al.: Epidermal Langerhans cells rapidly capture and present antigens from C-type lectin-targeting antibodies deposited in the dermis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 130, 755–762 (2010). doi:10.1038/jid.2009.343

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Allan, R.S., et al.: Epidermal viral immunity induced by CD8alpha + dendritic cells but not by Langerhans cells. Science 301, 1925–1928 (2003). doi:10.1126/science.1087576

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Oh, S., Perera, L.P., Burke, D.S., Waldmann, T.A., Berzofsky, J.A.: IL-15/IL-15Ralpha-mediated avidity maturation of memory CD8+ T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101, 15154–15159 (2004). doi:10.1073/pnas.0406649101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Bevan, M.J.: Cross-priming for a secondary cytotoxic response to minor H antigens with H-2 congenic cells which do not cross-react in the cytotoxic assay. J. Exp. Med. 143, 1283–1288 (1976)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Snyder, C.M., Allan, J.E., Bonnett, E.L., Doom, C.M., Hill, A.B.: Cross-presentation of a spread-defective MCMV is sufficient to prime the majority of virus-specific CD8+ T cells. PLoS One 5, e9681 (2010). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009681

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Freigang, S., Egger, D., Bienz, K., Hengartner, H., Zinkernagel, R.M.: Endogenous neosynthesis vs. cross-presentation of viral antigens for cytotoxic T cell priming. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 100, 13477–13482 (2003). doi:10.1073/pnas.1835685100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Henkart, P.A.: CTL effector functions. Semin. Immunol. 9, 85–86 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Nagata, S.: Fas-mediated apoptosis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 406, 119–124 (1996)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Andersen, M.H., Schrama, D., Thor Straten, P., Becker, J.C.: Cytotoxic T cells. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 32–41 (2006). doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. de Saint-Vis, B., et al.: The cytokine profile expressed by human dendritic cells is dependent on cell subtype and mode of activation. J. Immunol. 160, 1666–1676 (1998)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ueno, H., et al.: Harnessing human dendritic cell subsets for medicine. Immunol. Rev. 234, 199–212 (2010). doi:10.1111/j.0105-2896.2009.00884.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Matsuo, K., et al.: A low-invasive and effective transcutaneous immunization system using a novel dissolving microneedle array for soluble and particulate antigens. J. Control. Release 161, 10–17 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.01.033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Sheikh, N.A., et al.: Sipuleucel-T immune parameters correlate with survival: an analysis of the randomized phase 3 clinical trials in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. (2012). doi:10.1007/s00262-012-1317-2

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Dinarello, C.A.: Proinflammatory cytokines. Chest 118, 503–508 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Cyktor, J.C., Turner, J.: Interleukin-10 and immunity against prokaryotic and eukaryotic intracellular pathogens. Infect. Immun. 79, 2964–2973 (2011). doi:10.1128/IAI.00047-11

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Maynard, C.L., Weaver, C.T.: Diversity in the contribution of interleukin-10 to T-cell-mediated immune regulation. Immunol. Rev. 226, 219–233 (2008). doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00711.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Brooks, D.G., McGavern, D.B., Oldstone, M.B.: Reprogramming of antiviral T cells prevents inactivation and restores T cell activity during persistent viral infection. J. Clin. Invest. 116, 1675–1685 (2006). doi:10.1172/JCI26856

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Netea, M.G., et al.: Toll-like receptor 2 suppresses immunity against Candida albicans through induction of IL-10 and regulatory T cells. J. Immunol. 172, 3712–3718 (2004)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Stober, C.B., Lange, U.G., Roberts, M.T., Alcami, A., Blackwell, J.M.: IL-10 from regulatory T cells determines vaccine efficacy in murine Leishmania major infection. J. Immunol. 175, 2517–2524 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Verma, S., et al.: Quantification of parasite load in clinical samples of leishmaniasis patients: IL-10 level correlates with parasite load in visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS One 5, e10107 (2010). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010107

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Moore, K.W., et al.: Homology of cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor (IL-10) to the Epstein-Barr virus gene BCRFI. Science 248, 1230–1234 (1990)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Dolganiuc, A., et al.: Hepatitis C virus core and nonstructural protein 3 proteins induce pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit dendritic cell differentiation. J. Immunol. 170, 5615–5624 (2003)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Mahipal, A., et al.: Tumor-derived interleukin-10 as a prognostic factor in stage III patients undergoing adjuvant treatment with an autologous melanoma cell vaccine. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 60, 1039–1045 (2011). doi:10.1007/s00262-011-1019-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Chen, C.J., et al.: High expression of interleukin 10 might predict poor prognosis in early stage oral squamous cell carcinoma patients. Clin. Chim. Acta 415, 25–30 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.cca.2012.09.009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Lee, S.J., et al.: Identification of pro-inflammatory cytokines associated with muscle invasive bladder cancer; the roles of IL-5, IL-20, and IL-28A. PLoS One 7, e40267 (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040267

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Opal, S.M., DePalo, V.A.: Anti-inflammatory cytokines. Chest 117, 1162–1172 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Hao, N.B., et al.: Macrophages in tumor microenvironments and the progression of tumors. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 948098, 2012 (2012). doi:10.1155/2012/948098

    Google Scholar 

  47. Janeway Jr., C.A.: Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 54(Pt 1), 1–13 (1989)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Krishnaswamy, J.K., Chu, T., Eisenbarth, S.C.: Beyond pattern recognition: NOD-like receptors in dendritic cells. Trends Immunol. (2013). doi:10.1016/j.it.2012.12.003

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Ng, C.S., Kato, H., Fujita, T.: Recognition of viruses in the cytoplasm by RLRs and other helicases – how conformational changes, mitochondrial dynamics and ubiquitination control innate immune responses. Int. Immunol. 24, 739–749 (2012). doi:10.1093/intimm/dxs099

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Palm, N.W., Medzhitov, R.: Pattern recognition receptors and control of adaptive immunity. Immunol. Rev. 227, 221–233 (2009). doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00731.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Akira, S.: Innate immunity and adjuvants. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 366, 2748–2755 (2011). doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0106

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Ablasser, A., et al.: RIG-I-dependent sensing of poly(dA:dT) through the induction of an RNA polymerase III-transcribed RNA intermediate. Nat. Immunol. 10, 1065–1072 (2009). doi:10.1038/ni.1779

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Cridland, J.A., et al.: The mammalian PYHIN gene family: phylogeny, evolution and expression. BMC Evol. Biol. 12, 140 (2012). doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-140

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Lemaitre, B., Nicolas, E., Michaut, L., Reichhart, J.M., Hoffmann, J.A.: The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/Toll/cactus controls the potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults. Cell 86, 973–983 (1996)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Medzhitov, R., Preston-Hurlburt, P., Janeway Jr., C.A.: A human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein signals activation of adaptive immunity. Nature 388, 394–397 (1997). doi:10.1038/41131

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hashimoto, C., Hudson, K.L., Anderson, K.V.: The Toll gene of Drosophila, required for dorsal-ventral embryonic polarity, appears to encode a transmembrane protein. Cell 52, 269–279 (1988)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Meylan, E., Tschopp, J., Karin, M.: Intracellular pattern recognition receptors in the host response. Nature 442, 39–44 (2006). doi:10.1038/nature04946

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Lata, S., Raghava, G.P.: PRRDB: a comprehensive database of pattern-recognition receptors and their ligands. BMC Genomics 9, 180 (2008). doi:10.1186/1471-2164-9-180

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Fortis, A., Garcia-Macedo, R., Maldonado-Bernal, C., Alarcon-Aguilar, F., Cruz, M.: The role of innate immunity in obesity. Salud Publica Mex. 54, 171–177 (2012)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Benias, P.C., Gopal, K., Bodenheimer Jr., H., Theise, N.D.: Hepatic expression of toll-like receptors 3, 4, and 9 in primary biliary cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis C. Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol. (2012). doi:10.1016/j.clinre.2012.07.001

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Zhu, W., et al.: Overexpression of toll-like receptor 3 in spleen is associated with experimental arthritis in rats. Scand. J. Immunol. 76, 263–270 (2012). doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.2012.02724.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Medzhitov, R.: Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 1, 135–145 (2001). doi:10.1038/35100529

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ohto, U., Fukase, K., Miyake, K., Satow, Y.: Crystal structures of human MD-2 and its complex with antiendotoxic lipid IVa. Science 316, 1632–1634 (2007). doi:10.1126/science.1139111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Bauer, S., et al.: Human TLR9 confers responsiveness to bacterial DNA via species-specific CpG motif recognition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98, 9237–9242 (2001). doi:10.1073/pnas.161293498

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Boivin, N., Menasria, R., Piret, J., Boivin, G.: Modulation of TLR9 response in a mouse model of herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Antiviral Res. 96, 414–421 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.09.022

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Geeraedts, F., et al.: Superior immunogenicity of inactivated whole virus H5N1 influenza vaccine is primarily controlled by Toll-like receptor signalling. PLoS Pathog. 4, e1000138 (2008). doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000138

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Koyama, S., et al.: Plasmacytoid dendritic cells delineate immunogenicity of influenza vaccine subtypes. Sci. Transl. Med. 2, 25ra24 (2010). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3000759

    Google Scholar 

  68. Park, B.S., et al.: The structural basis of lipopolysaccharide recognition by the TLR4-MD-2 complex. Nature 458, 1191–1195 (2009). doi:10.1038/nature07830

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Ng, A., Xavier, R.J.: Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) proteins: integrators of pattern recognition and signaling in immunity. Autophagy 7, 1082–1084 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Lloyd, D.H., Viac, J., Werling, D., Reme, C.A., Gatto, H.: Role of sugars in surface microbe-host interactions and immune reaction modulation. Vet. Dermatol. 18, 197–204 (2007). doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2007.00594.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Dalpke, A., Helm, M.: RNA mediated Toll-like receptor stimulation in health and disease. RNA Biol. 9, 828–842 (2012). doi:10.4161/rna.20206

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Heeg, K., Dalpke, A., Peter, M., Zimmermann, S.: Structural requirements for uptake and recognition of CpG oligonucleotides. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 298, 33–38 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2007.07.007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Matzinger, P.: Tolerance, danger, and the extended family. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12, 991–1045 (1994). doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.005015

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Rubartelli, A., Lotze, M.T.: Inside, outside, upside down: damage-associated molecular-pattern molecules (DAMPs) and redox. Trends Immunol. 28, 429–436 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.it.2007.08.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Khanna, A.: Interleukin-18, a potential mediator of inflammation, oxidative stress, and allograft dysfunction. Transplantation 91, 590–591 (2011). doi:10.1097/TP.0b013e31820d3b82

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Piccinini, A.M., Midwood, K.S.: DAMPening inflammation by modulating TLR signalling. Mediators Inflamm. (2010). doi:10.1155/2010/672395 (2010)

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Yanai, H., et al.: HMGB proteins function as universal sentinels for nucleic-acid-mediated innate immune responses. Nature 462, 99–103 (2009). doi:10.1038/nature08512

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Zhang, Q., et al.: Circulating mitochondrial DAMPs cause inflammatory responses to injury. Nature 464, 104–107 (2010). doi:10.1038/nature08780

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Hirsiger, S., Simmen, H.P., Werner, C.M., Wanner, G.A., Rittirsch, D.: Danger signals activating the immune response after trauma. Mediators Inflamm. 2012, 315941 (2012). doi:10.1155/2012/315941

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Basu, S., Binder, R.J., Suto, R., Anderson, K.M., Srivastava, P.K.: Necrotic but not apoptotic cell death releases heat shock proteins, which deliver a partial maturation signal to dendritic cells and activate the NF-kappa B pathway. Int. Immunol. 12, 1539–1546 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Ichikawa, M., Williams, R., Wang, L., Vogl, T., Srikrishna, G.: S100A8/A9 activate key genes and pathways in colon tumor progression. Mol. Cancer Res. 9, 133–148 (2011). doi:10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-10-0394

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Termeer, C., et al.: Oligosaccharides of Hyaluronan activate dendritic cells via toll-like receptor 4. J. Exp. Med. 195, 99–111 (2002)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. O’Neill, L.A., Fitzgerald, K.A., Bowie, A.G.: The Toll-IL-1 receptor adaptor family grows to five members. Trends Immunol. 24, 286–290 (2003)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Zhang, Q., Zmasek, C.M., Cai, X., Godzik, A.: TIR domain-containing adaptor SARM is a late addition to the ongoing microbe-host dialog. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 35, 461–468 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.dci.2010.11.013

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Pahl, H.L.: Activators and target genes of Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors. Oncogene 18, 6853–6866 (1999). doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1203239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Baker, R.G., Hayden, M.S., Ghosh, S.: NF-kappaB, inflammation, and metabolic disease. Cell Metab. 13, 11–22 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2010.12.008

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Ben-Neriah, Y., Karin, M.: Inflammation meets cancer, with NF-kappaB as the matchmaker. Nat. Immunol. 12, 715–723 (2011). doi:10.1038/ni.2060

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Hayden, M.S., Ghosh, S.: NF-kappaB, the first quarter-century: remarkable progress and outstanding questions. Genes Dev. 26, 203–234 (2012). doi:10.1101/gad.183434.111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Griffin, G.E., Leung, K., Folks, T.M., Kunkel, S., Nabel, G.J.: Activation of HIV gene expression during monocyte differentiation by induction of NF-kappa B. Nature 339, 70–73 (1989). doi:10.1038/339070a0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Rong, B.L., et al.: HSV-1-inducible proteins bind to NF-kappa B-like sites in the HSV-1 genome. Virology 189, 750–756 (1992)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Jan, R.H., et al.: Hepatitis B virus surface antigen can activate human monocyte-derived dendritic cells by nuclear factor kappa B and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase mediated signaling. Microbiol. Immunol. 56, 719–727 (2012). doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2012.00496.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. O’Neill, L.A., Bryant, C.E., Doyle, S.L.: Therapeutic targeting of Toll-like receptors for infectious and inflammatory diseases and cancer. Pharmacol. Rev. 61, 177–197 (2009). doi:10.1124/pr.109.001073

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Krieg, A.M., et al.: CpG motifs in bacterial DNA trigger direct B-cell activation. Nature 374, 546–549 (1995). doi:10.1038/374546a0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Jahrsdorfer, B., Weiner, G.J.: CpG oligodeoxynucleotides as immunotherapy in cancer. Update Cancer Ther. 3, 27–32 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.uct.2007.11.003

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Butte, M.J., et al.: CD28 costimulation regulates genome-wide effects on alternative splicing. PLoS One 7, e40032 (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Ouyang, W., Kolls, J.K., Zheng, Y.: The biological functions of T helper 17 cell effector cytokines in inflammation. Immunity 28, 454–467 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2008.03.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Deenick, E.K., Ma, C.S.: The regulation and role of T follicular helper cells in immunity. Immunology 134, 361–367 (2011). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03487.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Sakaguchi, S.: Regulatory T cells: key controllers of immunologic self-tolerance. Cell 101, 455–458 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Macatangay, B.J., Szajnik, M.E., Whiteside, T.L., Riddler, S.A., Rinaldo, C.R.: Regulatory T cell suppression of Gag-specific CD8 T cell polyfunctional response after therapeutic vaccination of HIV-1-infected patients on ART. PLoS One 5, e9852 (2010). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009852

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Hammarlund, E., et al.: Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination. Nat. Med. 9, 1131–1137 (2003). doi:10.1038/nm917

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Rudolph, M., Hebel, K., Miyamura, Y., Maverakis, E., Brunner-Weinzierl, M.C.: Blockade of CTLA-4 decreases the generation of multifunctional memory CD4+ T cells in vivo. J. Immunol. 186, 5580–5589 (2011). doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1003381

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Litjens, N.H., et al.: IL-2 producing memory CD4+ T lymphocytes are closely associated with the generation of IgG-secreting plasma cells. J. Immunol. 181, 3665–3673 (2008)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Williams, M.A., Tyznik, A.J., Bevan, M.J.: Interleukin-2 signals during priming are required for secondary expansion of CD8+ memory T cells. Nature 441, 890–893 (2006). doi:10.1038/nature04790

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. Kaech, S.M., Cui, W.: Transcriptional control of effector and memory CD8(+) T cell differentiation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12, 749–761 (2012). doi:10.1038/nri3307

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. Sallusto, F., Langenkamp, A., Geginat, J., Lanzavecchia, A.: Functional subsets of memory T cells identified by CCR7 expression. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 251, 167–171 (2000)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Okada, R., Kondo, T., Matsuki, F., Takata, H., Takiguchi, M.: Phenotypic classification of human CD4+ T cell subsets and their differentiation. Int. Immunol. 20, 1189–1199 (2008). doi:10.1093/intimm/dxn075

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Keshavarz Valian, H., et al.: CCR7(+) central and CCR7(-) effector memory CD4 (+) T cells in human cutaneous leishmaniasis. J. Clin. Immunol. 33, 220–234 (2013). doi:10.1007/s10875-012-9788-7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Vazquez-Cintron, E.J., et al.: Protocadherin-18 is a novel differentiation marker and an inhibitory signaling receptor for CD8+ effector memory T cells. PLoS One 7, e36101 (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Lau, L.L., Jamieson, B.D., Somasundaram, T., Ahmed, R.: Cytotoxic T-cell memory without antigen. Nature 369, 648–652 (1994). doi:10.1038/369648a0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Mackay, L.K., et al.: Long-lived epithelial immunity by tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells in the absence of persisting local antigen presentation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109, 7037–7042 (2012). doi:10.1073/pnas.1202288109

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  111. Michalek, R.D., Rathmell, J.C.: The metabolic life and times of a T cell. Immunol. Rev. 236, 190–202 (2010). doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00911.x

    Google Scholar 

  112. Bensinger, S.J., Christofk, H.R.: New aspects of the Warburg effect in cancer cell biology. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 23, 352–361 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.02.003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Maciver, N.J., et al.: Glucose metabolism in lymphocytes is a regulated process with significant effects on immune cell function and survival. J. Leukoc. Biol. 84, 949–957 (2008). doi:10.1189/jlb.0108024

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Jacobs, S.R., et al.: Glucose uptake is limiting in T cell activation and requires CD28-mediated Akt-dependent and independent pathways. J. Immunol. 180, 4476–4486 (2008)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Finlay, D.K.: Regulation of glucose metabolism in T cells: new insight into the role of Phosphoinositide 3-kinases. Front. Immunol. 3, 247 (2012). doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00247

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Khan, J.M., Kumar, G., Ranganathan, S.: In silico prediction of immunogenic T cell epitopes for HLA-DQ8. Immunome Res. 8, 14 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  117. Beaver, J.E., Bourne, P.E., Ponomarenko, J.V.: EpitopeViewer: a Java application for the visualization and analysis of immune epitopes in the Immune Epitope Database and Analysis Resource (IEDB). Immunome Res. 3, 3 (2007). doi:10.1186/1745-7580-3-3

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Kim, Y., Sette, A., Peters, B.: Applications for T-cell epitope queries and tools in the Immune Epitope Database and Analysis Resource. J. Immunol. Methods 374, 62–69 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.jim.2010.10.010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Herd, K.A., et al.: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope vaccination protects against human metapneumovirus infection and disease in mice. J. Virol. 80, 2034–2044 (2006). doi:10.1128/JVI.80.4.2034-2044.2006

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. De Rose, R., et al.: Control of viremia and prevention of AIDS following immunotherapy of SIV-infected macaques with peptide-pulsed blood. PLoS Pathog. 4, e1000055 (2008). doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000055

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Torti, N., Oxenius, A.: T cell memory in the context of persistent herpes viral infections. Viruses 4, 1116–1143 (2012). doi:10.3390/v4071116

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Johnson, P.L., et al.: Vaccination alters the balance between protective immunity, exhaustion, escape, and death in chronic infections. J. Virol. 85, 5565–5570 (2011). doi:10.1128/JVI.00166-11

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Walsh, E.E.: Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 32, 423–432 (2011). doi:10.1055/s-0031-1283282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Graham, B.S.: Biological challenges and technological opportunities for respiratory syncytial virus vaccine development. Immunol. Rev. 239, 149–166 (2011). doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00972.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  125. Zinkernagel, R.M.: On natural and artificial vaccinations. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 21, 515–546 (2003). doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141045

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Maruyama, M., Lam, K.P., Rajewsky, K.: Memory B-cell persistence is independent of persisting immunizing antigen. Nature 407, 636–642 (2000). doi:10.1038/35036600

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Caraux, A., et al.: Circulating human B and plasma cells. Age-associated changes in counts and detailed characterization of circulating normal CD138- and CD138+ plasma cells. Haematologica 95, 1016–1020 (2010). doi:10.3324/haematol.2009.018689

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Yu, X., et al.: Neutralizing antibodies derived from the B cells of 1918 influenza pandemic survivors. Nature 455, 532–536 (2008). doi:10.1038/nature07231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. McHeyzer-Williams, M., Okitsu, S., Wang, N., McHeyzer-Williams, L.: Molecular programming of B cell memory. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12, 24–34 (2012). doi:10.1038/nri3128

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Phan, T.G., Gray, E.E., Cyster, J.G.: The microanatomy of B cell activation. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 21, 258–265 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.coi.2009.05.006

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Dogan, I., et al.: Multiple layers of B cell memory with different effector functions. Nat. Immunol. 10, 1292–1299 (2009). doi:10.1038/ni.1814

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Juno, J.A., Keynan, Y., Fowke, K.R.: Invariant NKT cells: regulation and function during viral infection. PLoS Pathog. 8, e1002838 (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002838

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Pena-Cruz, V., Ito, S., Dascher, C.C., Brenner, M.B., Sugita, M.: Epidermal Langerhans cells efficiently mediate CD1a-dependent presentation of microbial lipid antigens to T cells. J.Invest. Dermatol. 121, 517–521 (2003). doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12429.x

    Google Scholar 

  134. O’Brien, K.L., Hochman, M., Goldblatt, D.: Combined schedules of pneumococcal conjugate and polysaccharide vaccines: is hyporesponsiveness an issue? Lancet Infect. Dis. 7, 597–606 (2007). doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70210-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Brynjolfsson, S.F., et al.: Hyporesponsiveness following booster immunization with bacterial polysaccharides is caused by apoptosis of memory B cells. J. Infect. Dis. 205, 422–430 (2012). doi:10.1093/infdis/jir750

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Paradiso, P.R.: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for adults: a new paradigm. Clin. Infect. Dis. 55, 259–264 (2012). doi:10.1093/cid/cis359

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Woodland, D.L.: Jump-starting the immune system: prime-boosting comes of age. Trends Immunol. 25, 98–104 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.it.2003.11.009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Mast, T.C., et al.: International epidemiology of human pre-existing adenovirus (Ad) type-5, type-6, type-26 and type-36 neutralizing antibodies: correlates of high Ad5 titers and implications for potential HIV vaccine trials. Vaccine 28, 950–957 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.10.145

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. O’Hara, G.A., et al.: Clinical assessment of a recombinant simian adenovirus ChAd63: a potent new vaccine vector. J. Infect. Dis. 205, 772–781 (2012). doi:10.1093/infdis/jir850

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Rerks-Ngarm, S., et al.: Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to prevent HIV-1 infection in Thailand. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 2209–2220 (2009). doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0908492

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Molecular Vaccines, Heidelberg, Germany

    Matthias Giese

Authors
  1. Matthias Giese
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Giese, M. (2016). Basic Vaccine Immunology. In: Introduction to Molecular Vaccinology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25832-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation