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Justice in Transition: On Territory, Restitution and History

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Current Issues in Transitional Justice

Part of the book series: Springer Series in Transitional Justice ((SSTJ,volume 4))

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Abstract

Colonialism has had a huge impact upon the legal systems of countries around the world. The historical impact of the British Empire can still be felt today in countries as diverse as Australia and South Africa. This effect is explored in both these countries, both in its historical form of racial discrimination, as well as the modern consequences of this colonial past. This chapter will reflect on the Aboriginal land rights litigation in Australia, as well as the failed South African Apartheid litigation. By using these as examples, it aims to determine how certain conceptions of the Rule of Law and formal equality can lead to profound and ingrained legal discrimination against indigenous peoples.

This chapter is an updated and revised version of the paper “Colonialism, Justice and the Rule of Law: a Southern African and Australian narrative”, 2012 De Jure, Issue 45, Vol 2, 306–328.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992).

  2. 2.

    Hans Kelsen, Introduction to the Problems of Legal Theory, trans. Bonnie Litschewski Paulson and Stanley L. Paulson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).

  3. 3.

    Costas Douzinas and Adam Gearey, Critical Jurisprudence: The Political Philosophy of Justice (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2005) 283.

  4. 4.

    Paul Craig, “Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law: An Analytical Framework,” Public Law (1997): 467.

  5. 5.

    Constitutional Reform Act 2005, s 1 (c 4) (UK).

  6. 6.

    R v Horseferry Road Magistrates’ Court, ex parte Bennett 1994 1 AC 42 (HL), 62, 64 (Lord Griffiths), 67 (Lord Bridge), 75–77 (Lord Lowry); A v Secretary of State for the Home Department 2005 2 AC 68 (HL) [42] (Lord Bingham), [74] (Lord Nicholls).

  7. 7.

    Bush v Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000) (SCOTUS).

  8. 8.

    Jeremy Waldron, “Is the Rule of Law an Essentially Contested Concept (in Florida)?,” in The Rule of Law and the Separation of Powers, ed. Richard Bellamy (Farnham: Ashgate, 2005) 119.

  9. 9.

    Brian Tamanaha, On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) 3.

  10. 10.

    Craig, “Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law”, 467.

  11. 11.

    Craig, “Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law”, 467–468.

  12. 12.

    Erwin Chemerinsky, “Substantive Due Process,” Touro Law Review 15 (1999): 1501.

  13. 13.

    Chemerinsky, “Substantive Due Process,” 1501.

  14. 14.

    Santosky v Kramer, 455 U.S. 745, 753 (1982) (SCOTUS).

  15. 15.

    Lassiter v Department of Social Services, 452 U.S. 18, 27 (1981) (SCOTUS).

  16. 16.

    Santosky, 762.

  17. 17.

    John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

  18. 18.

    Joseph Raz, “The Rule of Law and its Virtue” in The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979) 210.

  19. 19.

    John Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980) 270.

  20. 20.

    Thomas Paine, Common Sense (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1997) 31–32.

  21. 21.

    Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, ed. Jonathan Barnes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984) Book 5 3, 1131a10–b15.

  22. 22.

    The term ‘indigenous’ is a complex term in the southern African context. The term ‘indigenous’ here refers to the inhabitants of southern Africa and Australia of non-British origin.

  23. 23.

    Douzinas and Gearey, Critical Jurisprudence, 286.

  24. 24.

    Douzinas and Gearey, Critical Jurisprudence, 286.

  25. 25.

    Peter Fitzpatrick, The Mythology of Modern Law (Abingdon: Routledge, 1992) 65.

  26. 26.

    (1919) AC 211 (HL) 233–234.

  27. 27.

    Justice Robert French and Patricia Lane, “The Common Law of Native Title in Australia,” Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal 2 (2002): 16.

  28. 28.

    MacDonald v Levy (1833) 1 Legge 39, 45 (NSWSC).

  29. 29.

    Cooper v Stuart (1889) 14 App Cas 286 (PC) 291.

  30. 30.

    Kent McNeil, Common Law Aboriginal Title (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 122.

  31. 31.

    David Reynolds, The Law of the Land (Melbourne: Penguin, 1987).

  32. 32.

    Reynolds, The Law of the Land, 97–103.

  33. 33.

    Reynolds, The Law of the Land, 140.

  34. 34.

    R v Murrell (1836) 1 Legge 72 (NSWSC).

  35. 35.

    Reynolds, The Law of the Land, 230.

  36. 36.

    David Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”: A Critical Analysis,” Sydney Law Review 18 (1996): 28–29.

  37. 37.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 29.

  38. 38.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 9.

  39. 39.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 12.

  40. 40.

    Douzinas and Gearey, Critical Jurisprudence, 287.

  41. 41.

    Douzinas and Gearey, Critical Jurisprudence, 287; Fitzpatrick, The Mythology of Modern Law, 70.

  42. 42.

    Mabo v Queensland (No 2) 1992 175 CLR 1 (HCA) [39].

  43. 43.

    David Neal, The Rule of Law in a Penal Colony: Law and Politics in Early New South Wales (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) 17. Neal here adverts to a substantive view of the Rule of Law, one which we feel historical justice litigation also forwards.

  44. 44.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 11.

  45. 45.

    Plessy v Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896) (SCOTUS).

  46. 46.

    Irene Watson, “Buried Alive,” Law and Critique 13 (2002): 262.

  47. 47.

    Alex C Castles, An Australian Legal History (Sydney, Law Book Co.,1982) 524–525; Russell Smandych, “Contemplating the Testimony of ‘Others’: James Stephen, the Colonial Office, and the Fate of Australian Aboriginal Evidence Acts, Circa 1839-1849,” Australian Journal of Legal History 8 (2004): 237.

  48. 48.

    Fitzpatrick, The Mythology of Modern Law, 111.

  49. 49.

    Department of the Parliamentary Library Information and Retrieval System, ‘Pat Dodson: Mabo, Reconciliation and National Leadership’, National Press Club, 15 September 1993 <http://hdl.handle.net/10070/91167>.

  50. 50.

    Robert van Krieken, “The barbarism of civilisation: cultural genocide and the ‘stolen generations’,” British Journal of Sociology 50 (1999): 303.

  51. 51.

    Russell McGregor, Imagined Destinies: Aboriginal Australians and the Doomed Race Theory, 1880-1939 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1997).

  52. 52.

    McGregor, Imagined Destinies, 134.

  53. 53.

    Charles Blackton, “The dawn of Australian national feeling, 1850-56,” Pacific Historical Rev 24 (1955): 121–138.

  54. 54.

    van Krieken, “The barbarism of civilisation,” 305.

  55. 55.

    Pat O’Malley, “Gentle genocide: the government of Aboriginal peoples in Central Australia,” Social Justice 21 (1994): 48.

  56. 56.

    Anthony Moran, “White Australia, Settler Nationalism and Aboriginal Assimilation,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 51 (2005): 168–193.

  57. 57.

    van Krieken, “The barbarism of civilisation,” 305; Anna Haebich, For Their Own Good: Aborigines and Government in the Southwest of Western Australia, 1900-1940 (Nedlands, WA: University of Western Australia Press, 1988) 350.

  58. 58.

    Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission “Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families” (1997) http://www.austlii.edu.au/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/index/html (accessed on 2012-04-23).

  59. 59.

    Ronald Berndt and Catherine Berndt, From Black to White in South Australia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952) 275.

  60. 60.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 27.

  61. 61.

    Hermann Giliomee, The Afrikaners—Biography of a people (London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 2012) for an authoritative and uncompromising overview of the South African history from the perspective of the white Afrikaner minority; Graham Leach, South Africa (Abingdon: Routledge, 1986) for an contemporary account of South Africa’s apartheid and its violent challenges during the last decade of its white minority rule; David Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2009) for an informative and comprehensive account of the rise and fall of Apartheid.

  62. 62.

    Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 34–35, for a description of the Boer “race”; the term is not used derogatively in the context of the chapter.

  63. 63.

    F.A. van Jaarsveld, Lewende Verlede (1961) 68–69; 73–74 for an analysis of Afrikaner history and ideology.

  64. 64.

    Leach 31 numbers the total number of Boer concentration camp victims at 26,000. Africans who also fought on the side of the Boers and who were also subjected to internment suffered a similar fate with high mortality numbers in the British camps, see Thomas Pakenham, The Boer War (London: Abacus, 2007) 510.

  65. 65.

    Van Jaarsveld, Lewende Verlede, 66–67 for a description of Afrikaner identity.

  66. 66.

    A sentiment which sometimes still resonates today and found its way into contemporary Pop culture as the success of the singer Bok van Blerk shows. Van Blerk landed a hit in 2006 with his rendition of “De La Rey”, which commemorates the above British atrocities and calls for Boer unity.

  67. 67.

    Coined on the Afrikaans “Apartness”.

  68. 68.

    Giliomee, The Afrikaners, xiv, recognises the Afrikaner as “both victims and proponents of European imperialism”.

  69. 69.

    “De Klerk Apologises Again For Apartheid” South African Press Association (1997-05-14) http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/media/1997/9705/s970514a.htm.

  70. 70.

    Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, 72–73; SAHO at http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/sharpeville-massacre-21-march-1960 (accessed on 2012-04-20) offers a wide variety of online sources. Sharpeville Township was once more in the headlines in 1984 when civil unrest erupted.

  71. 71.

    Also known as the Soweto Youth Riot, which spread over the whole country and were only contained in October 1977. There was a repeat of these riots in Soweto and Sharpeville in 1984—Leach, South Africa, 128ff. See Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, 101–102 for an account of the divergent Afrikaner opinion on the Soweto 1976 shootings. Both events serve as manifestations of the will of the black majority to take active action against white minority rule, action which moved away from passive resistance to out and out protest and even armed struggle.

  72. 72.

    Part (4) of the Commentary to Article 40 of the ILC Draft Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, vol. II, Part Two, where racial discrimination and apartheid are listed as potential peremptory norm violations of international law.

  73. 73.

    Article 7 Part 1 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court, where the crime of apartheid is listed as one of the elements of crimes against humanity, lit (j); See Article 5 of the Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 25 May 1993, UNSC Res. 827 (1993) which criminalises as crimes against humanity.

  74. 74.

    The Nuremberg Laws of 1935. The “Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour” and the “Reich Citizenship Law” stripped German Jews of their national identity and restricted interracial social as well as professional interaction, establishing the first prerequisite for the later Shoah.

  75. 75.

    Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report Volume 1 ch 13 http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/Volume%201.pdf (last accessed 2012-04-24) for a detailed overview of all major apartheid legislation within a topical context.

  76. 76.

    Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, 74–75; reference is also made to the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961 which resembled one of the last ‘fair’ trials where the rule of law was still upheld.

  77. 77.

    Referring to white Afrikaners as well as English speaking South Africans.

  78. 78.

    Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 551–552.

  79. 79.

    With Emancipation Day on 1 December 1838 marking an early “freedom” day in South African history.

  80. 80.

    This Act forms part of a wider legislative effort in the UK (and its territories) to regulate relationships between employers and employees; the last of these Acts was passed in 1904.

  81. 81.

    Effectively limiting the African vote by tying it to financial and educational minimum requirements.

  82. 82.

    Van Jaarsveld, Lewende Verlede, 64.

  83. 83.

    Beth Stephens, International Human Rights Litigation in U.S. Courts (Leiden: Brill, 2008) 23–24.

  84. 84.

    In re South African Apartheid Litigation, 02 MDL 1499 (S.D.N.Y. 2009) continued the original 2004 case of In re South African Apartheid Litigation 346F. Supp. 2d 538 (S.D.N.Y. 2004).

  85. 85.

    105F Supp 2d 139 (EDNY 2000).

  86. 86.

    In re Nazi Era Cases Against German Defendants Litig (2000) 198 FRD 429 (DNJ) MDL No 1337 DNJ Lead Civ No 98-4104 (WGB).

  87. 87.

    DAX is the acronym for Deutsche Aktien Index where the major German (public) corporations are listed.

  88. 88.

    375F.Supp. 2d 721 (N.D. III. 2005).

  89. 89.

    Stephens, International Human Rights Litigation in U.S. Courts 541–548; Rachel J Anderson, “Redressing Colonial Genocide: The Hereros’ Cause of Action Against Germany,” California L Rev 95 (2005): 1155; Jeremy Sarkin and Carly K Fowler, “Reparations for Historical Human Rights Violations: The International and Historical Dimensions of the Alien Torts Claims Act Genocide Case of the Herero in Namibia,” Human Rights Rev 9 (2008): 331.

  90. 90.

    Filartiga v Pena-Irala 630F 2d 876 (2d Cir) 1980.

  91. 91.

    Filartiga v Pena-Irala 630F 2d 876 (2d Cir) 1980. The ATCA/ATS was only used on a few occasions prior to Filartiga; Symposium, “Corporate liability for violations of international human rights law,” Harvard Law Review 114 (2001): 2033.

  92. 92.

    Carolyn A D’Amore, “Note, Sosa v Alvarez-Machain and the Alien Tort Statute: How Wide Has the Door to Human Rights Litigation Been Left Open?,” Akron Law Review 39 (2006): 596.

  93. 93.

    28 USC § 1350.

  94. 94.

    Adra v Clift, 195F. Supp. 857 (D Md) 1961.

  95. 95.

    Bolchos v Darrel, 1 Bee 74, 3 Fed. Cas. 810 (DCSC) 1795.

  96. 96.

    Such as terrorism, Smith v Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 101 F 3d 239 (2d Cir 1996) for the terrorist Lockerbie bombing of 1988.

  97. 97.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013).

  98. 98.

    I USC §1.

  99. 99.

    Citizens United v Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. (2010) (SCOTUS).

  100. 100.

    Santa Clara County v Southern Pacific Railroad, 118 U.S. 394 (1886) (SCOTUS).

  101. 101.

    Hennie Strydom and Sascha Bachmann, “Civil liability of gross human rights violations,” Journal of South African Law 3 (2005): 454-457; “Shell on trial - Oil giant in the dock over 1995 murder of activist who opposed environmental degradation of Niger Delta” The Independent (2009-15-26) http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/shell-on-trial-1690616.html (accessed on 2012-04-24); John Doe I v. Unocal Corp, 403 F.3d708 concerned allegations of corporate complicity in forced labour and torture. The case was settled out of court in 2006; “Historic advance for universal human rights: Unocal to compensate Burmese villagers” http://www.earthrights.org/news/press_unocal_settle.shtml (accessed on 2012-04-23); Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., 226 F.3d 88 (2d Cir 2000); the case was based on the alleged involvement of the Royal Dutch/Shell oil group in human rights abuses in Nigeria, leading to the 1995 torture and murder of the environmental and community activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and was settled out of court in 2009; Sarei v. Rio Tinto, PLC, 487 F.3d 1193, 1198 (9th Cir) 2007, regarding alleged complicity of corporations in the commission of war crimes committed by Papua New Guinean Security Forces.

  102. 102.

    105 F Supp 2d 139 (EDNY) 2000.

  103. 103.

    Stephens, International Human Rights Litigation in U.S. Courts, 543.

  104. 104.

    198 FRD 429 (DNJ) MDL No 1337 DNJ Lead Civ No 98-4104 (WGB) (2000).

  105. 105.

    Stephens, International Human Rights Litigation in U.S. Courts, 543 ff for an overview of related lawsuits within their topical context; In re South African Apartheid Litigation, 02 MDL 1499 (SDNY) 2009 continues the original unsuccessful 2004 lawsuit, In re South African Apartheid Litigation 346 F. Supp. 2d 538 (SDNY) 2004. For the dismissal see the plaintiffs representations’ statements at http://pressoffice.mg.co.za/KhulumaniSupportGroup/PressRelease.php?StoryID=242251(shtml (accessed on 2013-10-13).

  106. 106.

    See Anderson, “Redressing Colonial Genocide: The Hereros’ Cause of Action Against Germany” for a summary of the political and legal questions surrounding the Herero’s cause of action against Germany.

  107. 107.

    Gesine Krüger “Coming to Terms with the Past” GHI Bulletin 37 (2005): 45–49; Casper Erichsen and David Olusoga, The Kaiser’s Holocaust: Germany’s Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism (London: Faber & Faber, 2010).

  108. 108.

    BBC News “German bank accused of genocide” (2001-09-25) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1561463.stm.

  109. 109.

    Herero People’s Reparations Corp. v. Deutsche Bank, A.G 370 F.3d 1192 (DC Cir) 2004; Stephens, International Human Rights Litigation in U.S. Courts, 1194-95.

  110. 110.

    Ida Hoffmann, “German Acknowledgments A Milestone in Our Struggle,” The Namibian (2012-04-12) http://www.namibian.com.na/columns/full-story/archive/2012/february/article/german-acknowledgments-a-milestone-in-our-struggle. (accessed on 2012-04-20).

  111. 111.

    Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, No. 34 of 1995.

  112. 112.

    Justice in Transition booklet explaining the role of the TRC http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/legal/justice.htm, (accessed on 2012-04-23).

  113. 113.

    TRC, A Summary of Reparation and Rehabilitation Policy, Including Proposals to be Considered by the President http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/reparations/summary.htm; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report Volume 5 (2003) ch 5, 173–195 http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/Volume%205.pdf and Preamble to the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, No. 34 of 1995.

  114. 114.

    Sascha Bachmann, Civil Responsibility For Gross Human Rights Violations—The Need For A Global Instrument (Pretoria: Pretoria University Law Press, 2007) 40–43.

  115. 115.

    Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report Volume 1 ch 1, where the chairperson sums up some of the criticisms and challenges directed at the TRC during the duration of its work http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/Volume%201.pdf. For a current summary, see South African Coalition for Transitional Justice (SACTJ) “Background: Facing Apartheid’s Legacy” http://ictj.org/our-work/regions-and-countries/south-africa.

  116. 116.

    Neither former president Thabo Mbeki nor President Jacob Zuma showed much interest in implementing the TRC’s recommendations. The only exception was the initial disbursements of R48.37 million by Nelson Mandela’s President’s Fund, which paid out grants of R3,000 to the 17,100 applicants in November 2001. The median annual household income in SA at that time was around R21,700; Strydom and Bachmann, “Civil Liability for Gross Human Rights Violations,” 466–467.

  117. 117.

    South African History Archive Draft Regulations released for payment of reparations to apartheid victims (2011) http://www.saha.org.za/news/2011/May/draft_regulations_released_for_payment_of_reparations_to_apartheid_victims.htm, (accessed on 2012-04-23). The South African Coalition for Transitional Justice criticised these regulations in its Comments On The Draft Regulations Published By The Department Of Justice Dealing With Reparations For Apartheid Era Victims (2011) http://ictj.org/sites/default/files/SACTJ-South-Africa-Reparations-Submission-2011-English.pdf.

  118. 118.

    “Khulumani Memorandum to the President” (2012) http://www.khulumani.net/reparations/corporate.html.

  119. 119.

    In re South African Apartheid Litigation; Ntsebeza et al. v. Citigroup et al (EDNY) 346 F. Supp. 2d 538 2004; Bachmann 34–36.

  120. 120.

    In re South African Apartheid Litigation 02 MDL 1499 (SDNY) 2009.

  121. 121.

    This decision was taken in order to prevent any damage to present and future foreign investment in South Africa and must be seen before the background that the original amount of remedies sought, totaled 400,000,000,000 US $. “It’s state v apartheid victims” Mail & Guardian (2005-10-21) 5 for a brief overview of the controversy in South Africa.

  122. 122.

    “State supports apartheid-era victims” IOL—News for South Africa (2009-09-03) http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/state-supports-apartheid-era-victims-457265?ot=inmsa.ArticlePrintPageLayout.ot, (accessed on 2012-04-23).

  123. 123.

    Adrian Ephraim, “US General Motors settles apartheid reparations claim” Mail & Guardian Online (2012-02-29) http://mg.co.za/article/2012-02-29-us-general-motors-settles-apartheid-reparations-claim, (accessed on 2012-04-24).

  124. 124.

    Sosa v Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692 (2004) (SCOTUS).

  125. 125.

    Sosa, 724.

  126. 126.

    Sosa, 714.

  127. 127.

    Sosa, 715.

  128. 128.

    Sosa, 724-725.

  129. 129.

    The Forti test consists actually of two parts, Forti I and II with the former outlining the requirements for the jus cogens nature of actionable torts and the latter defining the “universality” criteria thereof, Forti v. Suarez-Mason 672 F Supp (ND Cal 1987) 1531.

  130. 130.

    Bachmann, Civil Responsibility For Gross Human Rights Violations – The Need For A Global Instrument, 17–18.

  131. 131.

    Ibid.

  132. 132.

    Kiobel oral transcript 11 http://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/10-1491.pdf, (accessed on 2012-04-23).

  133. 133.

    See http://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/10-1491-order-rearg-3-5-12.pdf, (accessed on 2012-04-23).

  134. 134.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 6 (Roberts CJ).

  135. 135.

    EEOC v Arabian American Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244, 248 (1991).

  136. 136.

    Sosa v Alvarez-Machain 542 U.S. 692, 727–728 (2004).

  137. 137.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 6-13 (Roberts CJ).

  138. 138.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 12 (Roberts CJ).

  139. 139.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 13 (Roberts CJ).

  140. 140.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 14 (Roberts CJ).

  141. 141.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 14 (Roberts CJ).

  142. 142.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 3 (Breyer J).

  143. 143.

    Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum, 569 U.S. (2013), slip.op. at 14-15 (Breyer J).

  144. 144.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 22.

  145. 145.

    Coe v Commonwealth (1979) 53 AJLR 403 (HCA).

  146. 146.

    Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 [39].

  147. 147.

    Mabo [63].

  148. 148.

    Mabo [82].

  149. 149.

    Mabo [28]-[29].

  150. 150.

    Gerry Simpson, “Mabo, International Law, Terra Nullius and the Stories of Settlement: An Unresolved Jurisprudence,” Melbourne University Law Review 19 (1993): 200.

  151. 151.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 30.

  152. 152.

    Mabo [55].

  153. 153.

    Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) (NTA). There has been a huge development in native title litigation, and non-legal political action, since Mabo. However, given the centrality of the Mabo case to the developments in the field, we focus upon it here.

  154. 154.

    Simpson, “Mabo, International Law, Terra Nullius and the Stories of Settlement,” 207.

  155. 155.

    NTA s 225; Neil MacCormick, Legal Reasoning and Legal Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978).

  156. 156.

    Walter Otto Weyraucht, “Law as Mask—Legal Ritual and Relevance,” California Law Review 66 (1978): 699.

  157. 157.

    Valerie Kerruish and Jeannine Purdy, “He “Look” Honest, Big White Thief,” Law, Text, Culture 4 (1998): 150.

  158. 158.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 32.

  159. 159.

    Paul Coe and Peter Lewis, “100 % Mabo,” Polemic 3 (1992): 143.

  160. 160.

    Ritter, “The “Rejection of Terra Nullius in Mabo”,” 33.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Executive Business Centre, Bournemouth University, 89 Holdenhurst Rd, Bournemouth, Dorset, BH8 8EB, UK

    Sascha-Dominik Bachmann

  2. Law School, University of Sussex, Mantell Building 2b33, Brighton, BN1 9SP, UK

    Tom Frost

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  1. Sascha-Dominik Bachmann
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Correspondence to Sascha-Dominik Bachmann .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Southern Cross University School of Law and Justice, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia

    Natalia Szablewska

  2. University of Lincoln Law School, Lincoln, United Kingdom

    Sascha-Dominik Bachmann

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© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

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Bachmann, SD., Frost, T. (2015). Justice in Transition: On Territory, Restitution and History. In: Szablewska, N., Bachmann, SD. (eds) Current Issues in Transitional Justice. Springer Series in Transitional Justice, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09390-1_4

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