Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Tuberculosis in Children and Adolescents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Tuberculosis in Clinical Practice

  • 639 Accesses

Abstract

Children and adolescents represent an important component of the overall tuberculosis (TB) epidemic. Following exposure to an infectious case of TB and subsequent infection, young children and pubertal adolescents have a high risk of progression to TB disease. The disease manifestations change with age; the youngest children often have paucibacillary disease, either localised to lymph nodes or disseminated through the body as miliary TB or TB meningitis. As children enter adolescence, they are more likely to develop multibacillary disease and have typical features of adult TB, such as cavities. The diagnosis of TB in young children can be challenging, and microbiological confirmation is frequently not possible, due to the paucibacillary nature of the disease as well as the challenges in obtaining respiratory specimens. The clinician must therefore assemble pieces of evidence to support the diagnosis, including symptoms, signs, immunological tests, and radiology. The treatment of TB infection and disease in children and adolescents are broadly similar to adults. However, important differences include drug dosages, the need for child-friendly formulations, specific issues for adherence support and other areas such as impact on schooling, and child protection. Childhood TB needs to be addressed as part of any TB programme and services need to be tailored to the specific needs of children and adolescents of all ages. If this is undertaken, the potential for a future TB-free generation is possible.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Sandgren A, Cuevas LE, Dara M, et al. Childhood tuberculosis: progress requires an advocacy strategy now. Eur Respir J. 2012;40(2):294–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Basu Roy R, Whittaker E, Kampmann B. Current understanding of the immune response to tuberculosis in children. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012;25(3):250–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Basu Roy R, Whittaker E, Seddon JA, Kampmann B. Tuberculosis susceptibility and protection in children. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(3):e96–e108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Dodd PJ, Sismanidis C, Seddon JA. Global burden of drug-resistant tuberculosis in children: a mathematical modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(10):1193–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Global tuberculosis report. 2018. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274453/9789241565646-eng.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 10 December 2018.

  6. Jenkins HE, Tolman AW, Yuen CM, et al. Incidence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis disease in children: systematic review and global estimates. Lancet. 2014;383(9928):1572–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Snow KJ, Sismanidis C, Denholm J, Sawyer SM, Graham SM. The incidence of tuberculosis among adolescents and young adults: a global estimate. Eur Respir J. 2018;51(2).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Seddon JA, Chiang SS, Esmail H, Coussens AK. The Wonder Years: What Can Primary School Children Teach Us About Immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis? Front Immunol. 2018;9:2946.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. The natural history of childhood intra-thoracic tuberculosis: a critical review of literature from the pre-chemotherapy era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;8(4):392–402.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Jaganath D, Mupere E. Childhood tuberculosis and malnutrition. J Infect Dis. 2012;206(12):1809–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Dodd PJ, Prendergast AJ, Beecroft C, Kampmann B, Seddon JA. The impact of HIV and antiretroviral therapy on TB risk in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  12. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Guidance for national tuberculosis programme on the management of tuberculosis in children (Second edition). 2014. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112360/1/9789241548748_eng.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 11 June 2018.

  13. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Tuberculosis. 2016. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng33/resources/tuberculosis-pdf-1837390683589. Accessed 19 June 2017.

  14. Morrison J, Pai M, Hopewell PC. Tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection in close contacts of people with pulmonary tuberculosis in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008;8(6):359–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fox GJ, Barry SE, Britton WJ, Marks GB. Contact investigation for tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2013;41(1):140–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kampmann B, Seddon JA, Paton J, et al. Evaluating UK National Guidance for Screening of Children for Tuberculosis. A Prospective Multicenter Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(8):1058–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Mulenga H, Tameris MD, Luabeya KK, et al. The Role of Clinical Symptoms in the Diagnosis of Intrathoracic Tuberculosis in Young Children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(11):1157–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Obihara CC, Hesseling AC, Schaaf HS, Beyers N. Well defined symptoms are of value in the diagnosis of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(11):1162–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Schaaf HS, Donald PR, Scott F. Maternal chest radiography as supporting evidence for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in childhood. J Trop Pediatr. 1991;37(5):223–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Swingler GH, du Toit G, Andronikou S, van der Merwe L, Zar HJ. Diagnostic accuracy of chest radiography in detecting mediastinal lymphadenopathy in suspected pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(11):1153–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Hatherill M, Hanslo M, Hawkridge T, et al. Structured approaches for the screening and diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis in a high prevalence region of South Africa. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88(4):312–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. du Plessis J, Goussard P, Andronikou S, Gie R, George R. Comparing three-dimensional volume-rendered CT images with fibreoptic tracheobronchoscopy in the evaluation of airway compression caused by tuberculous lymphadenopathy in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2009;39(7):694–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Belard S, Heuvelings CC, Banderker E, et al. Utility of Point-of-care ultrasound in children with pulmonary tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Belard S, Heller T, Orie V, et al. Sonographic findings of abdominal tuberculosis in children with pulmonary tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36(12):1224–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Kunkel A, Abel Zur Wiesch P, Nathavitharana RR, Marx FM, Jenkins HE, Cohen T. Smear positivity in paediatric and adult tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16(1):282.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Detjen AK, DiNardo AR, Leyden J, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF assay for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Respir Med 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Nicol MP, Workman L, Prins M, et al. Accuracy of Xpert MTB/RIF ultra for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Rachow A, Clowes P, Saathoff E, et al. Increased and expedited case detection by Xpert MTB/RIF assay in childhood tuberculosis: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(10):1388–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Zar HJ, Hanslo D, Apolles P, Swingler G, Hussey G. Induced sputum versus gastric lavage for microbiological confirmation of pulmonary tuberculosis in infants and young children: a prospective study. Lancet. 2005;365(9454):130–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hatherill M, Hawkridge T, Zar HJ, et al. Induced sputum or gastric lavage for community-based diagnosis of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis? Arch Dis Child. 2009;94(3):195–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Cruz AT, Revell PA, Starke JR. Gastric aspirate yield for children with suspected pulmonary Tuberculosis. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc. 2013;2(2):171–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Marcy O, Ung V, Goyet S, et al. Performance of Xpert MTB/RIF and alternative specimen collection methods for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in HIV-infected children. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(9):1161–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Zar HJ, Workman L, Isaacs W, et al. Rapid molecular diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in children using nasopharyngeal specimens. Clin Infect Dis. 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Oberhelman RA, Soto-Castellares G, Gilman RH, et al. Diagnostic approaches for paediatric tuberculosis by use of different specimen types, culture methods, and PCR: a prospective case-control study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10(9):612–20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Abadco DL, Steiner P. Gastric lavage is better than bronchoalveolar lavage for isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in childhood pulmonary tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11(9):735–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Dhooria S, Madan K, Pattabhiraman V, et al. A multicenter study on the utility and safety of EBUS-TBNA and EUS-B-FNA in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(10):1031–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Walters E, Demers AM, van der Zalm MM, et al. Stool Culture for Diagnosis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Children. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55(12):3355–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Walters E, Gie RP, Hesseling AC, Friedrich SO, Diacon AH, Gie RP. Rapid diagnosis of pediatric intrathoracic tuberculosis from stool samples using the Xpert MTB/RIF Assay: a pilot study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(12):1316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Wright CA, Hesseling AC, Bamford C, Burgess SM, Warren R, Marais BJ. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy: a first-line diagnostic procedure in paediatric tuberculosis suspects with peripheral lymphadenopathy? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2009;13(11):1373–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Casalini AG, Mori PA, Majori M, et al. Pleural tuberculosis: medical thoracoscopy greatly increases the diagnostic accuracy. ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Diacon AH, Van de Wal BW, Wyser C, et al. Diagnostic tools in tuberculous pleurisy: a direct comparative study. Eur Respir J. 2003;22(4):589–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Marais BJ, Hesseling AC, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, Enarson DA, Beyers N. The bacteriologic yield in children with intrathoracic tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(8):e69–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Chiang SS, Swanson DS, Starke JR. New diagnostics for childhood tuberculosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am. 2015;29(3):477–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Togun TO, MacLean E, Kampmann B, Pai M. Biomarkers for diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2018;13(9):e0204029.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Anderson ST, Kaforou M, Brent AJ, et al. Diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis and host RNA expression in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(18):1712–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Portevin D, Moukambi F, Clowes P, et al. Assessment of the novel T-cell activation marker-tuberculosis assay for diagnosis of active tuberculosis in children: a prospective proof-of-concept study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14(10):931–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Rapid advice. Treatment of tuberculosis in children. WHO/HTM/TB/201013. 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  48. SHINE study: Shorter treatment for minimal TB in children. Available at: http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN63579542. Accessed 11 June 2018.

  49. McKenna L. The tuberculosis treatment pipeline report for children. 2018. Available at: http://www.pipelinereport.org/2018/tb-peds-treatment-pipeline. Accessed 25 May 2019.

  50. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Statement on the use of child-friendly fixed-dose combinations for the treatment of TB in children. 2017. Available at: https://www.who.int/tb/areas-of-work/children/WHO_UNICEFchildhoodTBFDCs_Statement.pdf. Accessed 12 June 2019.

  51. TB Alliance. Child-friendly medicines. 2019. Available at: https://www.tballiance.org/child-friendly-medicines. Accessed 12 June 2019.

  52. Seddon JA, Thee S, Jacobs K, Ebrahim A, Hesseling AC, Schaaf HS. Hearing loss in children treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. J Infect. 2013;66(4):320–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Seddon JA, Hesseling AC, Godfrey-Faussett P, Schaaf HS. High treatment success in children treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: an observational cohort study. Thorax. 2014;69(5):458–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Frydenberg AR, Graham SM. Toxicity of first-line drugs for treatment of tuberculosis in children: review. Tropical Med Int Health. 2009;14(11):1329–37.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Donald PR, Maher D, Maritz JS, Qazi S. Ethambutol dosage for the treatment of children: literature review and recommendations. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10(12):1318–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Pelkonen O, Turpeinen M, Hakkola J, Honkakoski P, Hukkanen J, Raunio H. Inhibition and induction of human cytochrome P450 enzymes: current status. Arch Toxicol. 2008;82(10):667–715.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Story A, Aldridge RW, Smith CM, et al. Smartphone-enabled video-observed versus directly observed treatment for tuberculosis: a multicentre, analyst-blinded, randomised, controlled superiority trial. Lancet. 2019;393(10177):1216–24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Taddeo D, Egedy M, Frappier JY. Adherence to treatment in adolescents. Paediatr Child Health. 2008;13(1):19–24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Thwaites G, Fisher M, Hemingway C, Scott G, Solomon T, Innes J. British Infection Society guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis of the central nervous system in adults and children. J Infect. 2009;59(3):167–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Woodfield J, Argent A. Evidence behind the WHO guidelines: hospital care for children: what is the most appropriate anti-microbial treatment for tuberculous meningitis? J Trop Pediatr. 2008;54(4):220–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. van Well GT, Paes BF, Terwee CB, et al. Twenty years of pediatric tuberculous meningitis: a retrospective cohort study in the western cape of South Africa. Pediatrics. 2009;123(1):e1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. ClinicalTrials.gov. Optimizing treatment to improve TBM outcomes in children (TBM-KIDS). 2017. Available at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02958709. Accessed 11 June 2018.

  63. SURE: Short intensive treatment for children with tuberculous meningitis. Available at: http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN40829906. Accessed 25 May 2019.

  64. Turkova A, Chappell E, Judd A, et al. Prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors of tuberculosis in children with HIV living in the UK and Ireland (CHIPS): a cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2015;2(12):e530–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Link-Gelles R, Moultrie H, Sawry S, Murdoch D, Van Rie A. Tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in children initiating antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic literature review. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014;33(5):499–503.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Yotebieng M, Van Rie A, Moultrie H, et al. Effect on mortality and virological response of delaying antiretroviral therapy initiation in children receiving tuberculosis treatment. AIDS. 2010;24(9):1341–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: Recommendations for a public health approach. 2016. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/208825/9789241549684_eng.pdf;jsessionid=CDB102E437E69E6C5A0F9AF012620724?sequence=1. Accessed 12 June 2019.

  68. Bamford A, Turkova A, Lyall H, et al. Paediatric European network for treatment of AIDS (PENTA) guidelines for treatment of paediatric HIV-1 infection 2015: optimizing health in preparation for adult life. HIV Med. 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Whittaker E, Turkova A, Bamford A. HIV-tuberculosis co-infection in children. CHIVA statement. 2015. Available at: https://www.chiva.org.uk/files/6615/4461/6238/CHIVA-TB_HIV_Coinfection.pdf. Accessed 12 June 2019.

  70. Machingaidze S, Wiysonge CS, Gonzalez-Angulo Y, et al. The utility of an interferon gamma release assay for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection and disease in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;

    Google Scholar 

  71. Bekker A, Schaaf HS, Seifart HI, et al. Pharmacokinetics of isoniazid in low-birth-weight and premature infants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(4):2229–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Bekker A, Schaaf HS, Draper HR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of rifampin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol in infants dosed according to revised WHO-recommended treatment guidelines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(4):2171–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Latent tuberculosis infection. updated and consolidated guidelines for programmatic management. 2018. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/260233/1/9789241550239-eng.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 11 June 2018.

  74. Assefa Y, Assefa Y, Woldeyohannes S, Hamada Y, Getahun H. 3-month daily rifampicin and isoniazid compared to 6- or 9-month isoniazid for treating latent tuberculosis infection in children and adolescents less than 15 years of age: an updated systematic review. Eur Respir J. 2018;52(1).

    Google Scholar 

  75. Smieja MJ, Marchetti CA, Cook DJ, Smaill FM. Isoniazid for preventing tuberculosis in non-HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;2:CD001363.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Villarino ME, Scott NA, Weis SE, et al. Treatment for preventing tuberculosis in children and adolescents: a randomized clinical trial of a 3-month, 12-dose regimen of a combination of rifapentine and isoniazid. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(3):247–55.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Sterling TR, Villarino ME, Borisov AS, et al. Three months of rifapentine and isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(23):2155–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Swindells S, Ramchandani R, Gupta A, et al. One month of rifapentine plus isoniazid to prevent HIV-related tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(11):1001–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Diallo T, Adjobimey M, Ruslami R, et al. Safety and side effects of rifampin versus isoniazid in children. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(5):454–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Menzies D, Adjobimey M, Ruslami R, et al. Four months of rifampin or nine months of isoniazid for latent tuberculosis in adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(5):440–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Grace SG. Barriers to the implementation of isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis in children in endemic settings: a review. J Paediatr Child Health. 2019;55(3):278–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Cruz AT, Starke JR. A current review of infection control for childhood tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2011;91(Suppl 1):S11–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. National Education Union. Tuberculosis in schools. 2018. Available at: https://neu.org.uk/tuberculosis-schools. Accessed 12 June 2019.

  84. Schaaf HS, Marais BJ, Carvalho I, Seddon JA. Challenges in childhood tuberculosis. In: Migliori GB, Bothamley G, Duarte R, Rendon A, editors. Tuberculosis (ERS Monograph). Sheffield: European Respiratory Society; 2018. p. 234–62.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

James Seddon is supported by a Clinician Scientist Fellowship jointly funded by the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) and the UK Department for International Development (DFID) under the MRC/DFID Concordat agreement (MR/R007942/1).

Contribution

All authors contributed to the drafting and revision of this chapter. All approved the final version.

Conflicts of Interest

None Declared.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, London, UK

    Elizabeth Whittaker & James A. Seddon

  2. Department of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK

    Elizabeth Whittaker & James A. Seddon

  3. Birmingham Chest Clinic and Heartlands Hospital, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

    Steven B. Welch

  4. Paediatric & Adolescent Division, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

    Jonathan Cohen

  5. UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK

    Jonathan Cohen

  6. Desmond Tutu TB Centre, Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa

    James A. Seddon

Authors
  1. Elizabeth Whittaker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steven B. Welch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jonathan Cohen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. James A. Seddon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James A. Seddon .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Respiratory Medicine, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust and the National Heart and Lung Institute Imperial College London, London, UK

    Onn Min Kon

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Whittaker, E., Welch, S.B., Cohen, J., Seddon, J.A. (2021). Tuberculosis in Children and Adolescents. In: Kon, O.M. (eds) Tuberculosis in Clinical Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75509-6_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75509-6_8

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-75508-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-75509-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation