Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Comparison Theory: Self-Evaluation and Group Life

  • Chapter
Theories of Group Behavior

Part of the book series: Springer Series in Social Psychology ((SSSOC))

Abstract

When psychologists think of social comparison theory, they initially recall Leon Festinger’s classic paper on a theory of social comparison processes. However, in the three decades since the publication of this work, social comparison theory has evolved in several ways. First, there have been many restatements and amendments to the theory, some connecting it with other theories current in social psychology. Second, several discrete areas of empirical investigation have flourished that are closely connected to the theory. A modern theory of social comparison draws on both these developments for its formulation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, J.S. (1965). Injustice in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Advances in experimental psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 269–299). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. (1956). A plea for excuses. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, W. (1977). Equity theory and social comparison processes. In J. M. Suls and R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 279–305). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1977). Reproduction: In education, society, and culture. Beverly Hills, Ca: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, G.W. (1978). Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 56–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brickman, P., & Bulman, R. (1977). Pleasure and pain in social comparison. In J. M. Suls and R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 149–186). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. (1965). Socal psychology. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnstein, E., & Vinokur, A (1977). Persuasive arguments and social comparison as determinants of attitude polarization. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 315–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J.D. (1986). Similarity and uniqueness: the effects of attribute type, relevance, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 281–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, M.S. & Mills, J. (1979). Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 12–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, T. D, Crosby, F., & Hennigan, K. M. (1977). In J. M. Suls and R L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 307–334). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Kayne, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1985). Comparing the self with others in depressed and nondepressed college students: Reply to McCauley. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1579–1583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crosby, F. (1976). A model of egoistical relative deprivation. Psychological Review, 83, 85–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. M., & Goethals, G. R. (1980). People’s analyses of the causes of ability-linked performances. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 13 pp. 1–37). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. A (1966). The campus as frog pond: An application of the theory of relative deprivation to career decisions of college men. American Journal of Sociology, 72, 17–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C., & Goetz, T. (1978). Attributions and learned helplessness. In J. Harvey, W. Ickes, and R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 2 pp. 157–179). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Folger, R., Rosenfield, D., Rheaume, K, and Martin, C. (1983). relative deprivation and referent cognitions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 172–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goethals, G. R. (1986). Fabricating and ignoring social reality: Self-serving estimates of consensus. In J. M. Olson, C. P. Herman, and M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Relative deprivation and social comparison: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 4, pp. 135–157). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goethals, G. R. (in press). Social comparison theory: Psychology from the lost and found. Personality and Social Psychology Bulliten.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goethals, G. R., & Darley, J. M. (1977). Social comparison, an attributional approach. In J. M. Suls & R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 259–278). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goethals, G. R., & Zanna, M. P. (1979). The role of social comparison in choice shifts. Journal of Personality and Soial Psychology, 37, 1469–1476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1955). On facework: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. Journal of Psychiatry, 18, 213–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A G. (1980). The tolitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. american Psychologist, 35, 603–613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hakmiller, K. L. (1966). Threat as a determinant of downward comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1966, Supplement 1, 32–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1985). Processes underlying the construction, maintenance, and enhancement of the self-conception in children. In J. M. Suls and A Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homans, G. C (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological studies in policy decisions and fiascoes (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jellison, J. M., & Riskind, J. A. (1970). A social comparison of abilities interpretation of risk taking behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 375–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jemmott, J., Ditto, D. H. & Croyle, R. T. (in press). Judging health status: The effects of perceived prevelance and personal relevance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. E., & Davis, K E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2 pp. 219–266). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192–238).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H. H. (1971). Attribution in social interaction. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H. H. (1972). Causal schemata and the attribution process. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H. H. (1973). The process of causal attribtuion. American Psychologist, 28, 107–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latanè, B. (Ed.). (1966). Studies in social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Supplement 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, J. M. (1983). Social comparison and education. In J. M. Levine and M. C. Wang (Eds.), Teacher and student perception: Implications for learning (pp. 29–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. (in press). Social comparison and outcome evaluation in group contexts. In J. C. Masters and W. P. Smith (Eds.), Social comparison and social justice. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, C. (1985). Depression and the false consensus effect: a note concerning the study by Tabachnik, Crocker, and Alloy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1576–1578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mette, D. R, & Smith, G. (1977). Social comparison and interpersonal attraction: The case for dissimilarity. In J. M. Suls, & R. M. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Washington, DC: Hemisphere (pp. 69–102).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. (1983). Paper presented at the Ontario Symposium on Relative Deprivation and Social Comparison. London, Ontario, October 13–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction: Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 148–156.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, B., Atkins, J. L., Champion, D. S., Edwards, C., Hardy, D., Story, J. E., & Vanderklok, M. (1985). The false consensus effect: A meta-analysis of 115 hypothesis tests. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 262–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, D. (1983). Social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J. M., & Ross, M. (1984). Perceived qualifications, resource abundance, and resentment about deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 425–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pruitt, D. G. (1971). Choice shifts in group discussion: An introductory review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 339–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roethlisberger, F., & Dickson, W. (1939). Management and the worker. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rommetveit, R. (1955). Social norms and roles: Explorations in the psychology of enduring social pressures. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowtiz (Ed), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10 pp. 173–220). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M., & Fletcher, G. J. O. (1985). Attribution and social perception. In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 73–122). New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (1979). Egocentric biases in availability and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 322–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N. (1983). The development of social comparison processes and their role in achievement-related self-socialization. In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, & W. W. Hardup (Eds.), Social cognition and social development: A socio-cultural perspective (pp. 3–12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., Boggiano, A. K., Feldman, N. S., & Loebel, J. H. (1980). Developmental analysis of the role of social comparison in self-evaluation. Developmental Psychology, 16, 105–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., Parsons, J. E., & Ross, J. (1976). Self-evaluative responses of children in an achievement setting. Child Development, 47, 990–997.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Runciman, W. G. (1961). Problems of research on relative deprivation. The European Journal of Sociology, 2, 315–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Runciman, W. G. (1966). Relative deprivation and social justice: A study of attitudes to social inequity in twentieth-century England. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachter, S. (1951). Deviation, rejection, and communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 190–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter, S. (1959). The psychology of affiliation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. E. (1966). Social comparison-progress and issues. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Supplement 1, 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, C., Higgins, R., & Stucky, R. (1983). Excuses: masquerades in search of grace. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, M. L., Stephan, W. G., & Rosenfield, D. (1976). Egotism and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 435–441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, M. L., Stephan, W. G., & Rosenfield, D. (1978). Attributional egotism. In J. H. Harvey, W. Ickes, and R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 2 pp. 91–117). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stang, L., Smith, M. D., & Rogers, C. M. (1978). Social comparison, multiple reference groups, and the self-concepts of academically handicapped children before and after mainstreaming. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 487–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stouffer, S. A, Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C, Star, S. A, & Williams, R. M. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during Army life (Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, H. S. (1953). Interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J. M., & Miller, R. L. (Eds.). (1977). Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J. M., & Mullen, B. From the cradle to the grave: comparison and self-evaluation across the life span. In J. M. Suls (Ed.), Social psychological perspectives on the self. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J. M., & Wan, C. K. (in press). In search of the false uniqueness phenomenon: Fear and estimates of social consensus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnik, N., Crocker, J., & Alloy, L. B. (1983). Depression, social comparison, and the false consensus effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 688–699.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1978). Interindividual behavior and intergroup behavior. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 27–60). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel and W. G. Austin (eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33–48). Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tetlock, P. E., & Levi, A (1982). Attribution bias: On the inconclusiveness of the cognition-motivation debate. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 68–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5, 5–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C. (1978). Social categorization and social discrimination in the minimal group paradigm. In H. Tajfel (ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 101–140). (European Monographs in Social Psychology). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., & Brown, R. J. (1978). social status, cognitive alternatives and intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Eds.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 201–234). (European Monographs in Social Psychology). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, I., & Pettigrew, T. F. (1984). Relative deprivation theory: An overview and conceptual critique. Special issue: Intergroup processes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 301–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallach, M. A., Kogan, N., & Bem, D. J. (1962). Group influence on individual risk taking. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65 75–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walster, E., Berscheid, E., & Walster, G. W. (1978). Equity: Theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, L. (1966). Motivation as a determinant of upward comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Supplement 1, 27–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, L., & Koestner, R. (1984). Performance evaluation: On choosing to know the related attributes of others when we know their performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 263–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, L., & Koestner, R, & Driver, R. E. (1982). Related attributes in the choice of comparison: It’s all there but it isn’t all there is. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 489–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, L., & Zuckerman, M. (1977). Commentary. In J. M. Suls and R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 335–357). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zanna, M. D., Goethals, G. R., & Hill, J. F. (1975). Evaluating a sex-related ability: Social comparison with similar others and standard setters. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 86–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M. (1979). Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory. Journal of Personality, 47, 245–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. George R. Goethals
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John M. Darley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, 13210, Syracuse, New York, USA

    Brian Mullen

  2. Department of Psychology, Williams College, 01267, Williamstown, Massachusetts, USA

    George R. Goethals

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1987 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Goethals, G.R., Darley, J.M. (1987). Social Comparison Theory: Self-Evaluation and Group Life. In: Mullen, B., Goethals, G.R. (eds) Theories of Group Behavior. Springer Series in Social Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4634-3_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4634-3_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9092-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-4634-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation