Abstract
Ecosystems, though impacted by global environmental change, can also contribute to the adaptation and mitigation of such large scale changes. Therefore, sustainable ecosystem management is crucial in reaching a sustainable future for the biosphere. Based on the published literature and publicly accessible data, this paper discussed the status and trends of forest, grassland, and wetland ecosystems in China that play important roles in the ecological integrity and human welfare of the nation. Ecological degradation has been observed in these ecosystems at various levels and geographic locations. Biophysical (e.g., climate change) and socioeconomic factors (e.g., intensive human use) are the main reasons for ecosystem degradation with the latter factors serving as the dominant driving forces. The three broad categories of ecosystems in China have partially recovered from degradation thanks to large scale ecological restoration projects implemented in the last few decades. China, as the largest and most populated developing nation, still faces huge challenges regarding ecosystem management in a changing and globalizing world. To further improve ecosystem management in China, four recommendations were proposed, including: (1) advance ecosystem management towards an application-oriented, multidisciplinary science; (2) establish a well-functioning national ecological monitoring and data sharing mechanism; (3) develop impact and effectiveness assessment approaches for policies, plans, and ecological restoration projects; and (4) promote legal and institutional innovations to balance the intrinsic needs of ecological and socioeconomic systems. Any change in China’s ecosystem management approach towards a more sustainable one will benefit the whole world. Therefore, international collaborations on ecological and environmental issues need to be expanded.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Armsworth PR, Chan KMA, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR, Kremen C, Ricketts TH, Sanjayan JA (2007) Ecosystem-service science and the way forward for conservation. Conservation Biology 21:1383–1384
Bennett MT (2008) China’s sloping land conversion program: institutional innovation or business as usual? Ecological Economics 65:699–711
Bull GQ, Nilsson S (2004) An assessment of China’s forest resources. International Forestry Review 6(3–4):210–220
Cao SX, Chen L, Yu XX (2009) Impact of China’s grain for green project on the landscape of vulnerable arid and semi-arid agricultural regions: a case study in northern Shaanxi Province. Journal of Applied Ecology 46:536–543
Chen KQ, Tang J (2007) Problems on legal protection of natural resources in China. Social Science Research 29(6):93–98 (in Chinese)
Chen QH, Zhou YZ, Xin XP (2008) Quantitative study of main influential factors of sandy desertification in Hulunbeier grassland during the near five Years. China Population, Resources and Environment 18(5):200–204 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Costanza R, dArge R, deGroot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, ONeill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, vandenBelt M (1997) The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253–260
Cui BS, Yang QC, Yang ZF, Zhang KJ (2009) Evaluating the ecological performance of wetland restoration in the Yellow River Delta, China. Ecological Engineering 35:1090–1103
Démurger S, Hou YZ, Yang WY (2009) Forest management policies and resource balance in China: an assessment of the current situation. The Journal of Environment and Development 18:17–41
Department of Forest Resources Management of the State Forestry Administration (DFRMSFA) (2010) China’s forest resources status and dynamic change. Forestry Economics 32(2):66–72 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Dong RC, Chen CD, Deng HB, Zhao JZ (2008) Forestland prediction of China based on forest ecosystem services for the first half of 21st century. Journal of Forestry Research 19(3):181–186
Fang CL, Lin XQ (2009) The eco-environmental guarantee for China’s urbanization process. Journal of Geographical Sciences 19:95–106
Feng Y, He DM, Gan S (2008) The main factors to effect the ecological changes in Nujiang drainage basin of longitudinal range-gorge region. Journal of Mountain Science 26:538–545 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Feng Y, Lu Q, Tokla T, Liu H, Wang X (2009a) Assessment of grassland degradation in Guinan county, Qinghai Province, China, in the past 30 years. Land Degradation and Development 20:55–68
Feng ZM, Yang YZ, Zhang D, Tang Y (2009b) Natural environment suitability for human settlements in China based on GIS. Journal of Geographical Sciences 19:437–446
Fu BJ (2008) Blue skies for China. Science 321:611
Fu BJ, Zhuang XL, Jiang GB, Shi JB, Lü YH (2007) Environmental problems and challenges in china. Environmental Science and Technology 41:7597–7602
Fu BJ, Li SG, Yu XB, Yang P, Yu GR, Feng RG, Zhuang XL (2010) Chinese ecosystem research network: progress and perspectives. Ecological Complexity 7:225–233
Gao JK (2008) Research on principal disturbances of forest health in China. Forest Inventory and Planning 33(6):34–38 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Gao QZ, Li Y, Wan YF, Jiangcun WZ, Qin XB, Wang BS (2010) Significant achievements in protection and restoration of alpine grassland ecosystem in northern Tibet, China. Restoration Ecology 17:320–323
Gong P, Niu ZG, Cheng X, Zhao KY, Zhou DM, Guo JH, Liang L, Wang XF, Li DD, Huang HB, Wang Y, Wang K, Li WN, Wang XW, Ying Q, Yang ZZ, Ye YF, Li Z, Zhuang DF, Chi YB, Zhou HZ, Yan J (2010) China’s wetland change (1990–2000) determined by remote sensing. Science in China Series D: Earth Science 53:1036–1042
Gu L, Sheate WR (2005) Institutional challenges for EIA implementation in China: a case study of development versus environmental protection. Environmental Management 36:125–142
Güneralp B, Seto KC (2008) Environmental impacts of urban growth from an integrated dynamic perspective: a case study of Shenzhen, South China. Global Environmental Change 18:720–735
Guo H, Wang B, Ma XQ, Zhao GD, Li SN (2008a) Evaluation of ecosystem services of Chinese pine forests in China. Science in China Series C: Life Sciences 51:662–670
Guo N, Zhu YJ, Wang JM, Deng CP (2008b) The relationship between NDVI and climate elements for 22 years in different vegetation areas of northwest China. Journal of Plant Ecology 32:319–327 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Han QY, Huang XP, Shi P, Zhang QM (2006) Coastal wetland in South China: degradation trends, causes and protection countermeasures. Chinese Science Bulletin 51(Suppl. 2):121–128
Han JG, Zhang YJ, Wang CJ, Bai WM, Wang YR, Han GD, Li LH (2008) Rangeland degradation and restoration management in China. Rangeland Journal 30:233–239
Harris RB (2010) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. Journal of Arid Environments 74:1–12
He FL (2009) Price of prosperity: economic development and biological conservation in China. Journal of Applied Ecology 46:511–515
He H, Pan YZ, Zhu WQ, Liu XL, Zhang Q, Zhu XF (2005) Measurement of terrestrial ecosystem service value in China. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 16:1122–1127 (in Chinese with English abstract)
He FN, Ge QS, Dai JH, Lin SS (2008) Forest change of China in recent 300 years. Journal of Geographical Sciences 18:59–72
He NP, Wu L, Wang YS, Han XG (2009) Changes in carbon and nitrogen in soil particle-size fractions along a grassland restoration chronosequence in northern China. Geoderma 150:302–308
Hicks C, Dietmar R (2007) Improving cleaner production through the application of environmental management tools in China. Journal of Cleaner Production 15:395–408
Jiang LL, Xiong DQ, Zhang XY, Zhang H (2008) Change of landscape pattern and its driving mechanism of the coastal wetland in Dalian City. Journal of Jilin University (Earth Science Edition) 38:670–675 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Kang L, Han XG, Zhang ZB, Sun OJ (2007) Grassland ecosystems in China: review of current knowledge and research advancement. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B—Biological Sciences 362:997–1008
Kauffman J (2009) Advancing sustainability science: report on the International Conference on Sustainability Science (ICSS) 2009. Sustainability Science 4:233–242
Kittinger JN, Coontz KM, Yuan ZP, Han DJ, Zhao XF, Wilcox BA (2009) Toward holistic evaluation and assessment: linking ecosystems and human well-being for the Three Gorges Dam. Ecohealth 6:601–613
Le C, Zha Y, Li Y, Sun D, Lu H, Yin B (2010) Eutrophication of lake waters in China: cost, causes, and control. Environmental Management 45:662–668
Lei K, Zhang MX (2005) The wetland resources in China and the conservation advices. Wetland Science 3(2):81–86 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Lei JQ, Li SY, Jin ZZ, Fan JL, Wang HF, Fan DD, Zhou HW, Gu F, Qiu YZ, Xu B (2008) Comprehensive eco-environmental effects of the shelter-forest ecological engineering along the Tarim Desert Highway. Chinese Science Bulletin 53(Suppl 2):190–202
Li WH (2004) Degradation and restoration of forest ecosystems in China. Forest Ecology and Management 201:33–41
Li YC (2009) Lessons learned strive to push a new stage of scientific development in the conversion of cropland to forest project. Forestry Economics 30(9):4–12 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Li WJ, Ali SH, Zhang Q (2007a) Property rights and grassland degradation: a study of the Xilingol pasture, Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Environmental Management 85:461–470
Li XT, Huang SF, Yang HB, Xu M (2007b) Study on dynamic change of wetlands within Yellow River Delta under new water-sediment circumstances. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering 38(11):18–21 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Li F, Xiong B, Xu B (2008a) Improving public access to environmental information in China. Journal of Environmental Management 88:1649–1656
Li LL, Gong HL, Zhao WJ (2008b) Change detection and driving factor analysis of Beijing wetlands from 1996 to 2006. Journal of Capital Normal University (Natural Science Edition) 29(3):95–101 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Li X, Nan ZT, Wu LZ, Ran YH, Wang J, Pan XD, Wang LX, Li HX, Zhu ZM (2008c) Environmental and Ecological Science Data Center for West China: integration and sharing of environmental and ecological data. Advances in Earth Science 23:628–637 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Li YQ, Chen YN, Zhang YQ, Xia Y (2009) Rehabilitating China’s largest inland river. Conservation Biology 23:531–536
Li M, Mao L, Zhou C, Vogelmann JE, Zhu J (2010) Comparing forest fragmentation and its drivers in China and the USA with Globcover v2.2. Journal of Environmental Management 91:2572–2580
Liu JW (2009a) Imperative clarification of base numbers of Chinese grassland. Acta Agrestia Sinica 17:543–546 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Liu Z (2009b) Achievements and experiences of soil and water conservation during the past 60 years in China. Science of Soil and Water Conservation 7(4):1–6 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Liu JG, Dietz T, Carpenter SR, Folke C, Alberti M, Redman CL, Schneider SH, Ostrom E, Pell AN, Lubchenco J, Taylor WW, Ouyang ZY, Deadman P, Kratz T, Provencher W (2007) Coupled human and natural systems. Ambio 36:639–649
Liu GD, Michalk DL, Bai CJ, Yu DG, Chen ZQ (2008a) Grassland development in tropical and subtropical southern China. Rangeland Journal 30:255–270
Liu JG, Li SX, Ouyang ZY, Tam C, Chen XD (2008b) Ecological and socioeconomic effects of China’s policies for ecosystem services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:9477–9482
Liu B, Gong W, Gong WN, Song LN (2009) Opportunities and challenges in the construction of the Three-North Shelter Forest Program. Chinese Journal of Ecology 28:1679–1683 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Lo CWH, Fryxell GE, Wong WWH (2006) Effective regulations with little effect? The antecedents of the perceptions of environmental officials on enforcement effectiveness in China. Environmental Management 38:388–410
Lü YH, Fu BJ, Chen LD (2006) Ecological rehabilitation: a theoretical analysis. Acta Ecologica Sinica 26:3891–3897 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Lü YH, Chen LD, Fu BJ (2008) Land-cover effects on red soil rehabilitation in China: a meta-analysis. Progress in Physical Geography 32:487–498
Lu D, Xu X, Tian H, Moran E, Zhao M, Steven R (2010) The effects of urbanization on net primary productivity in southeastern China. Environmental Management 46:404–410
Luan JW, Xiang CH, Liu SR, Luo ZS, Gong YB, Zhu XL (2010) Assessments of the impacts of Chinese fir plantation and natural regenerated forest on soil organic matter quality at Longmen mountain, Sichuan, China. Geoderma 156:228–236
Ma WH, Fang JY, Yang YH, Mohammat A (2010) Biomass carbon stocks and their changes in northern China’s grasslands during 1982–2006. Science in China Series C: Life Sciences 53:841–850
McShane PE, Broadhurst MK, Williams A (2007) Keeping watch on the unwatchable: technological solutions for the problems generated by ecosystem-based management. Fish and Fisheries 8(2):153–161
Ministry of Environmental protection (MEP) (2008) Report on the state of the environment in China. (http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/soe/soe2008/201002/t20100224_186070.htm)
Mitsch WJ, Jørgensen SE (2003) Ecological engineering: a field whose time has come. Ecological Engineering 20:363–377
Mol APJ (2009) Urban environmental governance innovations in China. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 1:96–100
Noble B, Storey K (2001) Towards a structured approach to strategic environmental assessment. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management 3(4):483–508
Ongley ED, Wang XJ (2004) Transjurisdictional water pollution management in China: The legal and institutional framework. Water International 29:270–281
Pan MQ, Yu XB (2010) Land use/cover change and effects of “Returning Farmland to Lake” during different periods in Dongting Lake area. China Population, Resources and Environment 20(9):140–145 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Peng SL, Wang DX, Zhao H, Yang T (2008) Discussion the status quality of plantation and near nature forestry management in China. Journal of Northwest Forestry University 23:184–188 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Qu JH, Fan MH (2010) The current state of water quality and technology development for water pollution control in China. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 40:519–560
Ren H, Li ZA, Shen WJ, Yu ZY, Peng SL, Liao CH, Ding MM, Wu JG (2007) Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem function during the restoration of a tropical forest in south China. Science in China Series C: Life Sciences 50:277–284
Shao M, Tang XY, Zhang YH, Li WJ (2006) City clusters in China: air and surface water pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4:353–361
Shen ZY, Ding XW, Yang ZF (2004) Construction of plan environmental impact assessment system in China. Journal of Environmental Informatics 4(2):75–82
Shi CN, Wang LQ (2009) Status quo and changes analysis of forest resources quality in China. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 45(11):90–97 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Shi PJ, Wang JA, Feng WL, Ye T, Ge Y, Chen J, Liu J (2006) Response of eco-environmental security to land use/cover changes and adjustment of land use policy and pattern in China. Advances in Earth Science 21:111–119 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Shi FC, Li JJ, Wang SQ (2008) Soil organic carbon, nitrogen and microbial properties in contrasting forest ecosystems of north-east China under different regeneration scenarios. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica: Section B—Soil and Plant Science 58:1–10
Shi Z, Li Y, Wang S, Wang G, Ruan H, He R, Tang Y, Zhang Z (2009) Accelerated soil CO2 efflux after conversion from secondary oak forest to pine plantation in southeastern China. Ecological Research 24:1257–1265
Shi FS, Chen H, Wu Y, Wu N (2010) Effects of livestock exclusion on vegetation and soil Properties under two topographic habitats in an alpine meadow on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Polish Journal of Ecology 58:125–133
Song LP (2007) Problems in the environmental law system and some recommendations. Security, Health and Environment 7(11):2–3 (in Chinese)
Song KS, Liu DW, Wang ZM, Zhang B, Jin C, Li F, Liu HJ (2008) Land use change in Sanjiang Plain and its driving forces analysis since 1954. Acta Geographica Sinica 63:93–104 (in Chinese with English abstract)
State Forestry Administration, P.R. China (SFA) (2010) Summary of the seventh national forest resources inventory (in Chinese. http://www.forestry.gov.cn/portal/main/s/65/content-326341.html)
Tao JP, Zhang WY (2002) Natural forest conservation and its studies in China. World Forestry Research 15(6):61–68 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Tao T, Tan Z, He X (2007) Integrating environment into land-use planning through strategic environmental assessment in China: towards legal frameworks and operational procedures. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 27:243–265
Tian GQ (2008) Dynamics and related driving forces of wetland resources in Shandong province. Environment and Sustainable Development 24(2):4–7 (in Chinese)
Tong SZ, Lu XG, Su LY, Jiang M, Yao YL (2008) Changing process and the impact factors of wetland ecosystem in Zhalong Wetland. Wetland Science 6:179–184 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Turner BL, Lambin EF, Reenberg A (2007) The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:20666–20671
Wan SW, Qin P, Li Y, Liu XP (2001) Wetland creation for rare waterfowl conservation: a project designed according to the principles of ecological succession. Ecological Engineering 18:115–120
Wang ZL (2005) Strategic thinking of protecting grassland ecology in China. Grassland of China 27:1–9 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang QK, Wang SL (2007) Soil organic matter under different forest types in southern China. Geoderma 142:349–356
Wang H, Bia J, Wheeler D, Wang JN, Cao D, Lu GF, Wang Y (2004) Environmental performance rating and disclosure: China’s GreenWatch program. Journal of Environmental Management 71:123–133
Wang H, Ren JZ, Yan HB (2006a) Study on the desertification mechanism of natural grassland in the source regions of the Yellow River. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 15(6):19–25 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang QG, Gu G, Higano Y (2006b) Toward integrated environmental management for challenges in water environmental protection of Lake Taihu Basin in China. Environmental Management 37:579–588
Wang GX, Li YS, Wang YB, Chen L (2007a) Typical alpine wetland system changes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in recent 40 years. Acta Geographica Sinica 62:481–491 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang HX, Qin LH, Huang LL, Zhang L (2007b) Ecological agriculture in China: principles and applications. Advances in Agronomy 94:181–208
Wang RJ, Qin ZH, Jiang LP, Ye K (2007c) Lost value of Chinese grassland ecosystem due to degradation: an estimate based on remote sensing. Chinese Journal of Ecology 26:657–661 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang J, Guo N, Han TH, Sun B (2008a) Ecological benefit assessment of grassland restoration project: a case study of Maqu and Anxi county in Gansu province. Pratacultural Science 25(12):35–40 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang YX, Yao Y, Ju MT (2008b) Wise use of wetlands: current state of protection and utilization of Chinese wetlands and recommendations for improvement. Environmental Management 41:793–808
Wang CT, Long RJ, Wang QL, Shi JJ (2009a) Changes in plant diversity, biomass and soil carbon in alpine meadows at different degradation stages in the headwater region of three rivers, China. Land Degradation and Development 20:187–198
Wang SJ, Li J, Wu DQ, Liu J, Zhang K, Wang RQ (2009b) The strategic ecological impact assessment of urban development policies: a case study of Rizhao City, China. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment 23:1169–1180
Wang XP, Fang JY, Sanders NJ, White PS, Tang ZY (2009c) Relative importance of climate vs local factors in shaping the regional patterns of forest plant richness across northeast China. Ecography 32:133–142
Wang Q, Wang S, Yu X (2010) Decline of soil fertility during forest conversion of secondary forest to Chinese fir plantations in subtropical China. Land Degradation and Development. doi:10.1002/ldr.1030
Wikelski M, Kays RW, Kasdin NJ, Thorup K, Smith JA, Swenson GW (2007) Going wild: what a global small-animal tracking system could do for experimental biologists. Journal of Experimental Biology 210(2):181–186
Wu J, Chang IS, Bina O, Lam KC, Xu H (2011) Strategic environmental assessment implementation in China: five-year review and prospects. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 31:77–84
Xie Z, Xu X, Yuan L (2010) Analyzing qualitative and quantitative changes in coastal wetland associated to the effects of natural and anthropogenic factors in a part of Tianjin, China. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86:379–386
Xiong Y, Wang K (2010) Eco-compensation effects of the wetland recovery in Dongting Lake area. Journal of Geographical Sciences 20(3):389–405
Xu JT, Yin RS, Li Z, Liu C (2006a) China’s ecological rehabilitation: unprecedented efforts, dramatic impacts, and requisite policies. Ecological Economics 57:595–607
Xu YL, Liu K, Qin YM, Li HE, Jiang L (2006b) Land-use/cover change and analysis from 1982 to 2002 in Qinling Area. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 22:144–148 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Xu B, Tao WG, Yang XC, Qin ZH, Gao MF (2007a) Monitoring by remote sensing of vegetation growth in the project of grassland withdrawn from grazing in counties of china. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 16(5):13–21 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Xu XL, Cao MK, Li KR (2007b) Temporal spatial dynamics of carbon storage of forest vegetation in China. Progress in Geography 26(6):1–10 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Xu SJ, Yin CS, He M, Wang Y (2008) A technology for rapid reconstruction of moss-dominated soil crusts. Environmental Engineering Science 25:1129–1137
Xu K, Kong C, Wu C, Liu G, Deng H, Zhang Y (2009) Dynamic changes in Tangxunhu wetland over a period of rapid development (1953–2005) in Wuhan, China. Wetlands 29:1255–1261
Xu QF, Jiang PK, Wang HL (2010) Improvement of biochemical and biological properties of eroded red soil by artificial revegetation. Journal of Soils and Sediments 10(2):255–262
Yan JZ, Zhang YL, Bai WQ, Liu YH, Bao WK, Liu LS, Zheng D (2005) Land cover changes based on plant successions: deforestation, rehabilitation and degeneration of forest in the upper Dadu River watershed. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 48:2214–2230
Yan CH, Wang H, He Y, Zhang XX, Lu F (2006) Dynamic changes of mire landscape in Northeast China. Chinese Journal of Ecology 25:249–254 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Yang HJ, Shen ZM, Zhu SH, Wang WH (2008) Heavy metals in wetland plants and soil of Lake Taihu, China. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 27:38–42
Yin RS, Yin GP (2010) China’s primary programs of terrestrial ecosystem restoration: initiation, implementation, and challenges. Environmental Management 45:429–441
Yuan YG (2009) Main approaches and benefit of the national key project implementation for soil and water conservation of Shanxi Province. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation 29:192–195 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang HW (2007) Achievements, problems and tactics in implementing the project of conversion of cropland to forest. Forest Resources Management 26(3):13–17 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang KM, Wen ZG (2008) Review and challenges of policies of environmental protection and sustainable development in China. Journal of Environmental Management 88:1249–1261
Zhang H, Wu J, Sun CZ, Han ZL (2008a) Evaluation on wetland ecosystem service in Liaoning Province. Resources Science 30:267–273 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang XH, Li DY, Pan GX, Li LQ, Lin F, Xu XW (2008b) Conservation of wetland soil C stock and climate change of China. Advances of Climate Change Research 4:202–208
Zhang XL, Ye SY, Yin P, Gu QD (2008c) Ecosystem services value and its temporal change of coastal wetlands in southern Laizhou Bay. Chinese Journal of Ecology 28:2195–2202 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang XY, Lu XG, Shen SP, Gu HJ (2008d) Service value evaluation of main ecosystems of Ruoergai Plateau marshes. Wetland Science 6:466–472 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang B, Bi J, Yuan ZW, Ge JJ, Liu BB, Bu ML (2008e) Why do firms engage in environmental management? An empirical study in China. Journal of Cleaner Production 16:1036–1045
Zhang SQ, Na XD, Kong B, Wang ZM, Jiang HX, Yu H, Zhap ZC, Li XF, Liu CY, Dale P (2009a) Identifying wetland change in China’s Sanjiang Plain using remote sensing. Wetlands 29:302–313
Zhang XL, Chen DJ, Xu ZJ, Zhang CH, Ye SY (2009b) Service value of ecosystem of coastal wetlands in the Yellow River Delta. Science and Technology Review 27(10):37–42 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang XY, Lu XG, Wang SP (2009c) Dynamic changes of Ruoergai Plateau wetland ecosystem service value. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 20:1147–1152 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang H, Cui B, Xiao R, Zhao H (2010a) Heavy metals in water, soils and plants in riparian wetlands in the Pearl River Estuary, South China. Procedia Environmental Sciences 2:1344–1354
Zhang J, Ma K, Fu B (2010b) Wetland loss under the impact of agricultural development in the Sanjiang Plain, NE China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 166:139–148
Zhao JY (2009) The practical modes of diversified funding on soil and water conservation and ecological rehabilitation in Yantai Prefecture. Shandong Water Resources 11(8):11–14 (in Chinese)
Zhao JZ, Wu G, Zhao YM, Shao GF, Kong HM, Lu Q (2002) Strategies to combat desertification for the twenty-first century in China. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 9:292–297
Zhao JF, Yan XD, Jia GS (2009) Changes in carbon budget of northeast China forest ecosystems under future climatic scenario. Chinese Journal of Ecology 28:781–787 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhou HH, Zhao XQ, Tang YH, Gu S, Zhou L (2005) Alpine grassland degradation and its control in the source region of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, China. Grassland Science 51:191–203
Zhou K, Cao X, Tan BP (2008) Toward an improved legislative framework for China’s land degradation control. Natural Resources Forum 32:11–24
Zhou DM, Gong HL, Wang YY, Khan S, Zhao KY (2009) Driving forces for the marsh wetland degradation in the Honghe National Nature Reserve in Sanjiang Plain, northeast China. Environmental Modeling and Assessment 14:101–111
Zhu D, Jiang R (2008) Strategic environmental assessment in China: motivations, politics, and effectiveness. Journal of Environmental Management 88:615–626
Zhu WQ, Zhang JS, Pan YZ, Yang XQ, Jia B (2007) Measurement and dynamic analysis of ecological capital of terrestrial ecosystem in China. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 18:586–594 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhu YQ, Sun JL, Liao SB, Yang YP, Zhu HZ, Wang JL, Feng M, Song J, Du J (2010) Earth system scientific data sharing research and practice. Journal of Geo-Information Science 12:1–8 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhuang ZF (2003) Policies on China natural forest conservation program and its existing issues and countermeasures. World Forestry Research 16(4):59–63 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zong XY, Liu GH, Qiao YL, Lin S (2009) Study on dynamic changes of wetland landscape pattern in Yellow River delta. Journal of Geo-information Science 11:91–97 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zou XP, Qi QW, Jiang LL, Li J (2006) Research on evolution process and driving factors of forest landscape in Nuiang Basin. Progress in Physical Geography 25(5):41–46 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zuo XA, Zhao HL, Zhao XY, Guo YR, Yun JY, Wang SK, Miyasaka T (2009) Vegetation pattern variation, soil degradation and their relationship along a grassland desertification gradient in Horqin Sandy Land, northern China. Environmental Geology 58:1227–1237
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KZCX2-YW-421-3), the national key basic research program (2009CB421104), the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development, and K.C. Wong Education Foundation, Hong Kong.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lü, Y., Fu, B., Wei, W. et al. Major Ecosystems in China: Dynamics and Challenges for Sustainable Management. Environmental Management 48, 13–27 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9684-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9684-6