Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology and etiology of gliomas

  • Review
  • Published:
Acta Neuropathologica Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gliomas of astrocytic, oligodendroglial and ependymal origin account for more than 70% of all brain tumors. The most frequent (65%) and most malignant histological type is the glioblastoma. Since the introduction of computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, the incidence rates of brain tumors have been rather stable, with a tendency of higher rates in highly developed, industrialized countries. Some reports indicate that Caucasians have higher incidence than black or Asian populations, but to some extent, this may reflect socio-economic differences and under-ascertainment in some regions, rather than a significant difference in genetic susceptibility. With the exception of pilocytic astrocytomas, the prognosis of glioma patients is still poor. Less than 3% of glioblastoma patients are still alive at 5 years after diagnosis, higher age being the most significant predictor of poor outcome. Brain tumors are a component of several inherited tumor syndromes, but the prevalence of these syndromes is very low. Several occupations, environmental carcinogens, and diet (N-nitroso compounds) have been reported to be associated with an elevated glioma risk, but the only environmental factor unequivocally associated with an increased risk of brain tumors, including gliomas, is therapeutic X-irradiation. In particular, children treated with X-irradiation for acute lymphoblastic leukemia show a significantly elevated risk of developing gliomas and primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET), often within 10 years after therapy. TP53 mutations are frequent in low-grade gliomas and secondary glioblastomas derived therefrom. Approximately 60% of mutations are located in the hot spot codons 248 and 273, and the majority of these are G:C→A:T transitions at CpG sites. TP53 mutations are significantly more frequent in low-grade astrocytomas with promoter methylation of the O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase repair gene, suggesting that, in addition to deamination of 5-methylcytosine, exogenous or endogenous alkylation in the O6 position of guanine may contribute to the formation of these mutations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ali Kahn A, O’Brien DF, Kelly P, Phillips JP, Rawluk D, Bolger C, Pidgeon CN (2003) The anatomical distribution of cerebral gliomas in mobile phone users. Ir Med J 96:240–242

    Google Scholar 

  2. Anttila A, Heikkila P, Nykyri E, Kauppinen T, Pukkala E, Hernberg S, Hemminki K (1996) Risk of nervous system cancer among workers exposed to lead. J Occup Environ Med 38:131–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Armstrong B, Thierault G, Guenel P, Deadman J, Goldberg M, Heroux P (1994) Association between exposure to pulsed electromagnetic fields and cancer in electric utility workers in Quebec, Canada, and France. Am J Epidemiol 140:805–820

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Barbin A (2000) Etheno-adduct-forming chemicals: from mutagenicity testing to tumor mutation spectra. Mutat Res 462:55–69

    Google Scholar 

  5. Barbin A, Ohgaki H, Nakamura J, Kurrer M, Kleihues P, Swenberg J (2003) Endogenous deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage in human tissues: a comparison of ethenobases with aldehydric DNA lesions. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12:1241–1247

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bartsch H, Nair J (2000) Ultrasensitive and specific detection methods for exocylic DNA adducts: markers for lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. Toxicology 153:105–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Blowers L, Preston-Martin S, Mack WJ (1997) Dietary and other lifestyle factors of women with brain gliomas in Los Angeles County (California, USA). Cancer Causes Control 8:5–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Boeing H, Schlehofer B, Blettner M, Wahrendorf J (1993) Dietary carcinogens and the risk for glioma and meningioma in Germany. Int J Cancer 53:561–565

    Google Scholar 

  9. Boyle P, Maisonneuve P, Saracci R, Muir CS (1990) Is the increased incidence of primary malignant brain tumors in the elderly real? J Natl Cancer Inst 82:1594–1596

    Google Scholar 

  10. Brenner AV, Linet MS, Fine HA, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Black PM, Inskip PD (2002) History of allergies and autoimmune diseases and risk of brain tumors in adults. Int J Cancer 99:252–259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Brownson RC, Reif JS, Chang JC, Davis JR (1990) An analysis of occupational risks for brain cancer. Am J Public Health 80:169–172

    Google Scholar 

  12. Brustle O, Ohgaki H, Schmitt HP, Walter GF, Ostertag H, Kleihues P (1992) Primitive neuroectodermal tumors after prophylactic central nervous system irradiation in children. Association with an activated K-ras gene. Cancer 69:2385–2392

    Google Scholar 

  13. Bunin GR, Kuijten RR, Boesel CP, Buckley JD, Meadows AT (1994) Maternal diet and risk of astrocytic glioma in children: a report from the Childrens Cancer Group (United States and Canada). Cancer Causes Control 5:177–187

    Google Scholar 

  14. Burkhard C, Di Patre PL, Schüler D, Ysargil MG, Lütolf U, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H (2003) A population-based study on the incidence and survival of patients with pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 98:1170–1174

    Google Scholar 

  15. Butel JS, Lednicky JA (1999) Cell and molecular biology of simian virus 40: implications for human infections and disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:119–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Caggana M, Kilgallen J, Conroy JM, Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT, Miike R, Chen P, Wrensch MR (2001) Associations between ERCC2 polymorphisms and gliomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10:355–360

    Google Scholar 

  17. Carbone M, Rizzo P, Pass HI (1997) Simian virus 40, poliovaccines and human tumors: a review of recent developments. Oncogene 15:1877–1888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Carozza SE, Wrensch M, Miike R, Newman B, Olshan AF, Savitz DA, Yost M, Lee M (2000) Occupation and adult gliomas. Am J Epidemiol 152:838–846

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Cavenee WK, Burger PC, Van Meir EG (2000) Turcot syndrome. In: Kleihues P, Cavenee WK (eds) Pathology and genetics of tumours of the nervous system. IARC Press, Lyon, pp 238–239

  20. Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States (2002) (CBTRUS; http://www.cbtrus.org)

  21. Chen H, Ward MH, Tucker KL, Graubard BI, McComb RD, Potischman NA, Weisenburger DD, Heineman EF (2002) Diet and risk of adult glioma in eastern Nebraska, United States. Cancer Causes Control 13:647–655

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Christensen HC, Kosteljanetz M, Johansen C (2003) Incidences of gliomas and meningiomas in Denmark, 1943 to 1997. Neurosurgery 52:1327–1333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Cocco P, Dosemeci M, Heineman EF (1998) Brain cancer and occupational exposure to lead. J Occup Environ Med 40:937–942

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Cook A, Woodward A, Pearce N, Marshall C (2003) Cellular telephone use and time trends for brain, head and neck tumours. N Z Med J 116:U457

    Google Scholar 

  25. Cordier S, Mandereau L, Preston-Martin S, Little J, Lubin F, Mueller B, Holly E, Filippini G, Peris-Bonet R, McCredie M, Choi NW, Arsla A (2001) Parental occupations and childhood brain tumors: results of an international case-control study. Cancer Causes Control 12:865–874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Cordier S, Monfort C, Filippini G, Preston-Martin S, Lubin F, Mueller BA, Holly EA, Peris-Bonet R, McCredie M, Choi W, Little J, Arslan A (2004) Parental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the risk of childhood brain tumors: The SEARCH International Childhood Brain Tumor Study. Am J Epidemiol 159:1109–1116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Davis FG, Preston-Martin S (1998) Epidemiology: incidence and survival. In: Bigner DD, McLendon RE, Bruner JM (eds) Russel and Rubinstein’s pathology of tumors of the nervous system. Oxford university Press, London, pp 5–45

  28. Davis FG, McCarthy B, Jukich P (1999) The descriptive epidemiology of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 9:581–594

    Google Scholar 

  29. De Andrade M, Barnholtz JS, Amos CI, Adatto P, Spencer C, Bondy ML (2001) Segregation analysis of cancer in families of glioma patients. Genet Epidemiol 20:258–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. De Bont R, van Larebeke N (2004) Endogenous DNA damage in humans: a review of quantitative data. Mutagenesis 19:169–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. De Roos AJ, Rothman N, Inskip PD, Linet MS, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Fine HA, Black PM, Pittman GS, Bell DA (2003) Genetic polymorphisms in GSTM1, -P1, -T1, and CYP2E1 and the risk of adult brain tumors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12:14–22

    Google Scholar 

  32. De Roos AJ, Stewart PA, Linet MS, Heineman EF, Dosemeci M, Wilcosky T, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Fine HA, Black PM, Inskip PD (2003) Occupation and the risk of adult glioma in the United States. Cancer Causes Control 14:139–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Del Valle L, Gordon J, Assimakopoulou M, Enam S, Geddes JF, Varakis JN, Katsetos CD, Croul S, Khalili K (2001) Detection of JC virus DNA sequences and expression of the viral regulatory protein T-antigen in tumors of the central nervous system. Cancer Res 61:4287–4293

    Google Scholar 

  34. Dreifaldt AC, Carlberg M, Hardell L (2004) Increasing incidence rates of childhood malignant diseases in Sweden during the period 1960–1998. Eur J Cancer 40:1351–1360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Elexpuru-Camiruaga J, Buxton N, Kandula V, Dias PS, Campbell D, McIntosh J, Broome J, Jones P, Inskip A, Alldersea J (1995) Susceptibility to astrocytoma and meningioma: influence of allelism at glutathione S-transferase (GSTT1 and GSTM1) and cytochrome P-450 (CYP2D6) loci. Cancer Res 55:4237–4239

    Google Scholar 

  36. Ezer R, Alonso M, Pereira E, Kim M, Allen JC, Miller DC, Newcomb EW (2002) Identification of glutathione S-transferase (GST) polymorphisms in brain tumors and association with susceptibility to pediatric astrocytomas. J Neurooncol 59:123–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Fan KJ, Pezeshkpour GH (1992) Ethnic distribution of primary central nervous system tumors in Washington, DC, 1971 to 1985. J Natl Med Assoc 84:858–863

    Google Scholar 

  38. Ferlay J, Bray F, Sankila R, Parkin DM (1999) EUCAN 1999: Cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence in the European Union. IARC Press, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  39. Ferlay J, Bray F, Pisani P, Parkin DM (2000) Globocan 2000: Cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide. IARC Press, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  40. Feychting M, Floderus B, Ahlbom A (2000) Parental occupational exposure to magnetic fields and childhood cancer (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 11:151–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Fritz A, Percy C, Jack A, Shanmugaratnam K, Sobin L, Parkin DM, Whelan S (2000) ICD-O International Classification of Diseases for Oncology. World Health Organization, Geneva

  42. Frumkin H, Jacobson A, Gansler T, Thun MJ (2001) Cellular phones and risk of brain tumors. CA Cancer J Clin 51:137–141

    Google Scholar 

  43. Giles GG, McNeil JJ, Donnan G, Webley C, Staples MP, Ireland PD, Hurley SF, Salzberg M (1994) Dietary factors and the risk of glioma in adults: results of a case-control study in Melbourne, Australia. Int J Cancer 59:357–362

    Google Scholar 

  44. Greig NH, Ries LG, Yancik R, Rapoport SI (1990) Increasing annual incidence of primary malignant brain tumors in the elderly. J Natl Cancer Inst 82:1621–1624

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Gurney JG, Mueller BA, Davis S, Schwartz SM, Stevens RG, Kopecky KJ (1996) Childhood brain tumor occurrence in relation to residential power line configurations, electric heating sources, and electric appliance use. Am J Epidemiol 143:120–128

    Google Scholar 

  46. Gurney JG, Preston-Martin S, McDaniel AM, Mueller BA, Holly EA (1996) Head injury as a risk factor for brain tumors in children: results from a multicenter case-control study. Epidemiology 7:485–489

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hainaut P (1995) The tumor suppressor protein p53: a receptor to genotoxic stress that controls cell growth and survival. Curr Opin Oncol 7:76–82

    Google Scholar 

  48. Hall A, Harrington JM, Aw TC (1991) Mortality study of British pathologists. Am J Ind Med 20:83–89

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hardell L, Mild KH, Carlberg M (2002) Case-control study on the use of cellular and cordless phones and the risk for malignant brain tumours. Int J Radiat Biol 78:931–936

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Harrington JM, Oakes D (1984) Mortality study of British pathologists 1974–80. Br J Ind Med 41:188–191

    Google Scholar 

  51. Hemminki K, Kyyronen P, Vaittinen P (1999) Parental age as a risk factor of childhood leukemia and brain cancer in offspring. Epidemiology 10:271–275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Hochberg F, Toniolo P, Cole P (1984) Head trauma and seizures as risk factors of glioblastoma. Neurology 34:1511–1514

    Google Scholar 

  53. Hsu IC, Metcalf RA, Sun T, Welsh JA, Wang NJ, Harris CC (1991) Mutational hotspot in the p53 gene in human hepatocellular carcinomas. Nature 350:427–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Huang H, Reis R, Yonekawa Y, Lopes JM, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H (1999) Identification in human brain tumors of DNA sequences specific for SV40 large T antigen. Brain Pathol 9:33–44

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Huncharek M, Kupelnick B (2004) A meta-analysis of maternal cured meat consumption during pregnancy and the risk of childhood brain tumors. Neuroepidemiology 23:78–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Huncharek M, Kupelnick B, Wheeler L (2003) Dietary cured meat and the risk of adult glioma: a meta-analysis of nine observational studies. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 22:129–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Hussain SP, Harris CC (1999) p53 mutation spectrum and load: the generation of hypotheses linking the exposure of endogenous or exogenous carcinogens to human cancer. Mutat Res 428:23–32

    Google Scholar 

  58. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum (2004) Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. IARC Press, Vol 83

  59. Inskip PD, Tarone RE, Hatch EE, Wilcosky TC, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Fine HA, Black PM, Loeffler JS, Linet MS (2001) Cellular-telephone use and brain tumors. N Engl J Med 344:79–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Inskip PD, Tarone RE, Hatch EE, Wilcosky TC, Fine HA, Black PM, Loeffler JS, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Linet MS (2003) Sociodemographic indicators and risk of brain tumours. Int J Epidemiol 32:225–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Johansen C, Boice J Jr, McLaughlin J, Olsen J (2001) Cellular telephones and cancer—a nationwide cohort study in Denmark. J Natl Cancer Inst 93:203–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Jukich PJ, McCarthy BJ, Surawicz TS, Freels S, Davis FG (2001) Trends in incidence of primary brain tumors in the United States, 1985–1994. Neurooncology 3:141–151

    Google Scholar 

  63. Kang H, Konishi C, Kuroki T, Huh N (1995) Detection of O6-methylguanine, O4-methylthymine and O4-ethylthymine in human liver and peripheral blood leukocyte DNA. Carcinogenesis 16:1277–1280

    Google Scholar 

  64. Kaplan S, Novikov I, Modan B (1997) Nutritional factors in the etiology of brain tumors: potential role of nitrosamines, fat, and cholesterol. Am J Epidemiol 146:832–841

    Google Scholar 

  65. Kelsey KT, Wrensch M, Zuo ZF, Miike R, Wiencke JK (1997) A population-based case-control study of the CYP2D6 and GSTT1 polymorphisms and malignant brain tumors. Pharmacogenetics 7:463–468

    Google Scholar 

  66. Kheifets LI, Sussman SS, Preston-Martin S (1999) Childhood brain tumors and residential electromagnetic fields (EMF). Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 159:111–129

    Google Scholar 

  67. Khuder SA, Mutgi AB, Schaub EA (1998) Meta-analyses of brain cancer and farming. Am J Ind Med 34:252–260

    Google Scholar 

  68. Kleihues P, Cavenee K (eds) (2000) WHO Classification of Tumours. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the nervous system. IARC Press, Lyon

  69. Kleihues P, Wiestler OD, Ohgaki H, Aguzzi A (1998) Animal models of tumors of the nervous system. In: Berger MS, Wilson C (eds) The gliomas. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 124–133

  70. Krishnan G, Felini M, Carozza SE, Miike R, Chew T, Wrensch M (2003) Occupation and adult gliomas in the San Francisco Bay Area. J Occup Environ Med 45:639–647

    Google Scholar 

  71. Kuijten RR, Bunin GR, Nass CC, Meadows AT (1990) Gestational and familial risk factors for childhood astrocytoma: results of a case-control study. Cancer Res 50:2608–2612

    Google Scholar 

  72. Kuratsu J, Takeshima H, Ushio Y (2001) Trends in the incidence of primary intracranial tumors in Kumamoto, Japan. Int J Clin Oncol 6:183–191

    Google Scholar 

  73. Lamszus K, Lachenmayer L, Heinemann U, Kluwe L, Finckh U, Hoppner W, Stavrou D, Fillbrandt R, Westphal M (2001) Molecular genetic alterations on chromosomes 11 and 22 in ependymomas. Int J Cancer 91:803–808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Lantos PL, Louis DN, Rosenblum MK, Kleihues P (2002) Tumours of the nervous system. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL (eds) Greenfield’s neuropathology. Arnold, London, pp 767–1052

  75. Lee M, Wrensch M, Miike R (1997) Dietary and tobacco risk factors for adult onset glioma in the San Francisco Bay Area (California, USA). Cancer Causes Control 8:13–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Legler JM, Ries LA, Smith MA, Warren JL, Heineman EF, Kaplan RS, Linet MS (1999) Brain and other central nervous system cancers: recent trends in incidence and mortality. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1382–1390

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Lewis RA, Gerson LP, Axelson KA, Riccardi VM, Whitford RP (1984) von Recklinghausen neurofibromatosis. II. Incidence of optic gliomata. Ophthalmology 91:929–935

    Google Scholar 

  78. Lijinsky W (1992). Chemistry and biology of N-nitroso compounds. Cambridge University Press, New York

  79. Little MP, De Vathaire F, Shamsaldin A, Oberlin O, Campbell S, Grimaud E, Chavaudra J, Haylock RG, Muirhead CR (1998) Risks of brain tumour following treatment for cancer in childhood: modification by genetic factors, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Int J Cancer 78:269–275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Lonn S, Klaeboe L, Hall P, Mathiesen T, Auvinen A, Christensen HC, Johansen C, Salminen T, Tynes T, Feychting M (2004) Incidence trends of adult primary intracerebral tumors in four Nordic countries. Int J Cancer 108:450–455

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Louis DN, Stemmer-Rachamimov AO, Wiestler OD (2000) Neurofibromatosis type 2. In: Kleihues P, Cavenee WK (eds) World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the nervous system. IARCPress, Lyon, pp 219–222

  82. Magnani C, Aareleid T, Viscomi S, Pastore G, Berrino F (2001) Variation in survival of children with central nervous system (CNS) malignancies diagnosed in Europe between 1978 and 1992: the EUROCARE study. Eur J Cancer 37:711–721

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Malmer B, Gronberg H, Bergenheim AT, Lenner P, Henriksson R (1999) Familial aggregation of astrocytoma in northern Sweden: an epidemiological cohort study. Int J Cancer 81:366–370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Malmer B, Iselius L, Holmberg E, Collins A, Henriksson R, Gronberg H (2001) Genetic epidemiology of glioma. Br J Cancer 84:429–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Martini F, Iaccheri L, Lazzarin L, Carinci P, Corallini A, Gerosa M, Iuzzolino P, Barbanti-Brodano G, Tognon M (1996) SV40 early region and large T antigen in human brain tumors, peripheral blood cells, and sperm fluids from healthy individuals. Cancer Res 56:4820–4825

    Google Scholar 

  86. McKean-Cowdin R, Preston-Martin S, Pogoda JM, Holly EA, Mueller BA, Davis RL (1998) Parental occupation and childhood brain tumors: astroglial and primitive neuroectodermal tumors. J Occup Environ Med 40:332–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. McLendon RE, Robinson JS Jr, Chambers DB, Grufferman S, Burger PC (1985) The glioblastoma multiforme in Georgia, 1977–1981. Cancer 56:894–897

    Google Scholar 

  88. Modan B, Wagener DK, Feldman JJ, Rosenberg HM, Feinleib M (1992) Increased mortality from brain tumors: a combine outcome of diagnostic technology and change of attitude toward the elderly? Am J Epidemiol 135:1349–1357

    Google Scholar 

  89. Moss AR (1985) Occupational exposure and brain tumors. J Toxicol Environ Health 16:703–711

    Google Scholar 

  90. Muir CS, Storm HH, Polednak A (1994) Brain and other nervous system tumors. Cancer Surv 19/20:369–392

    Google Scholar 

  91. Muscat JE, Malkin MG, Thompson S, Shore RE, Stellman SD, McRee D, Neugut AI, Wynder EL (2000) Handheld cellular telephone use and risk of brain cancer. JAMA 284:3001–3007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Nakamura M, Watanabe T, Yonekawa Y, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H (2001) Promoter hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene MGMT in astrocytomas is frequently associated with G:C→A:T mutations of the TP53 tumor suppressor gene. Carcinogenesis 22:1715–1719

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Navas-Acien A, Pollan M, Gustavsson P, Plato N (2002) Occupation, exposure to chemicals and risk of gliomas and meningiomas in Sweden. Am J Ind Med 42:214–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Neglia JP, Meadows AT, Robison LL, Kim TH, Newton WA, Ruymann FB, Sather HN, Hammond GD (1991) Second neoplasms after acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood. N Engl J Med 325:1330–1336

    Google Scholar 

  95. Norman MA, Holly EA, Ahn DK, Preston-Martin S, Mueller BA, Bracci PM (1996) Prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke and childhood brain tumors: results from the United States West Coast childhood brain tumor study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5:127–133

    Google Scholar 

  96. Nygaard R, Garwicz S, Haldorsen T, Hertz H, Jonmundsson GK, Lanning M, Moe PJ (1991) Second malignant neoplasms in patients treated for childhood leukemia. A population-based cohort study from the Nordic countries. The Nordic Society of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology (NOPHO). Acta Paediatr Scand 80:1220–1228

    Google Scholar 

  97. Ohgaki H, Huang H, Haltia M, Vainio H, Kleihues P (2000) More about: Cell and molecular biology of Simian Virus 40: Implications for human infections and disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:495–496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Ohgaki H, Vital A, Kleihues P, Hainaut P (2000) Li-Fraumeni syndrome and TP53 germline mutations. In: Kleihues P, Cavenee WK (eds) WHO Classification of Tumours. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Nervous System. IARC Press, Lyon, pp 231–234

  99. Ohgaki H, Reifenberger G, Nomura K, Kleihues P (2001) Prognostic factors in gliomas. In: Gospodarowicz MK, Henson DE, Hutter RVP, O’Sullivan B, Sobin LH, Wittekind C (eds) UICC: Prognostic factors in cancer, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 725–743

  100. Ohgaki H, Dessen P, Jourde B, Horstmann S, Nishikawa T, Di Patre PL, Burkhard C, Maiorka P, Baeza N, Pisani P, Yonekawa Y, Yasargil MG, Lutolf U, Kleihues P (2004) Pathways to glioblastoma: a population based study on incidence, survival rates, and genetic alterations. Cancer Res 64:6892–6899

    Google Scholar 

  101. Ohshima H, Bartsch H (1994) Chronic infections and inflammatory processes as cancer risk factors: possible role of nitric oxide in carcinogenesis. Mutat Res 305:253–264

    Google Scholar 

  102. Okamoto Y, Di Patre PL, Burkhard C, Horstmann S, Jourde B, Fahey M, Schuler D, Probst-Hensch NM, Yasargil MG, Yonekawa Y, Lutolf U, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H (2004) Population-based study on incidence, survival rates, and genetic alterations of low-grade astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas. Acta Neuropathol 108:49–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Olivier M, Goldger DE, Sodha N, Ohgaki H, Kleihues P, Hainaut P, Eeles RA (2003) Li-Fraumeni and related syndromes: correlation between tumor type, family structure and TP53 genotype. Cancer Res 63:6643–6650

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Olsen JH, Nielsen A, Schulgen G (1993) Residence near high voltage facilities and risk of cancer in children. Br Med J 307:891–895

    Google Scholar 

  105. O’Neill BP, Blondal H, Yang P, Olafsdottir GH, Sigvaldason H, Jenkins RB, Kimmel DW, Scheithauer BW, Rocca WA, Bjornsson J, Tulinius H (2002) Risk of cancer among relatives of patients with glioma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:921–924

    Google Scholar 

  106. Parkin DM, Whelan SL, Feraly J, Teppo L, Thomas DB (2002) Cancer incidence in five continents. IARC Press, Lyon

  107. Paunu N, Pukkala E, Laippala P, Sankila R, Isola J, Miettinen H, Simola KO, Helen P, Helin H, Haapasalo H (2002) Cancer incidence in families with multiple glioma patients. Int J Cancer 97:819–822

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Peters ES, Kelsey KT, Wiencke JK, Park S, Chen P, Miike R, Wrensch MR (2001) NAT2 and NQO1 polymorphisms are not associated with adult glioma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10:151–152

    Google Scholar 

  109. Pfeifer GP, Hainaut P (2003) On the origin of G→T transversions in lung cancer. Mutat Res 526:39–43

    Google Scholar 

  110. Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S (2001) Maternal cured meat consumption during pregnancy and risk of paediatric brain tumour in offspring: potentially harmful levels of intake. Public Health Nutr 4:183–189

    Google Scholar 

  111. Preston-Martin S, Mack W, Henderson BE (1989) Risk factors for gliomas and meningiomas in males in Los Angeles County. Cancer Res 49:6137–6143

    Google Scholar 

  112. Preston-Martin S, Lewis S, Winkelmann R, Borman B, Auld J, Pearce N (1993) Descriptive epidemiology of primary cancer of the brain, cranial nerves, and cranial meninges in New Zealand, 1948–88. Cancer Causes Control 4:529–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Preston-Martin S, Navidi W, Thomas D, Lee PJ, Bowman J, Pogoda J (1996) Los Angeles study of residential magnetic fields and childhood brain tumors. Am J Epidemiol 143:105–119

    Google Scholar 

  114. Preston-Martin S, Pogoda JM, Mueller BA, Holly EA, Lijinsky W, Davis RL (1996) Maternal consumption of cured meats and vitamins in relation to pediatric brain tumors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5:599–605

    Google Scholar 

  115. Preston-Martin S, Pogoda JM, Mueller BA, Lubin F, Holly EA, Filippini G, Cordier S, Peris-Bonet R, Choi W, Little J, Arslan A (1998) Prenatal vitamin supplementation and risk of childhood brain tumors. Int J Cancer Suppl 11:17–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Preston DL, Ron E, Yonehara S, Kobuke T, Fujii H, Kishikawa M, Tokunaga M, Tokuoka S, Mabuchi K (2002) Tumors of the nervous system and pituitary gland associated with atomic bomb radiation exposure. J Natl Cancer Inst 94:1555–1563

    Google Scholar 

  117. Relling MV, Rubnitz JE, Rivera GK, Boyett JM, Hancock ML, Felix CA, Kun LE, Walter AW, Evans WE, Pui CH (1999) High incidence of secondary brain tumours after radiotherapy and antimetabolites. Lancet 354:34–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Rencic A, Gordon J, Otte J, Curtis M, Kovatich A, Zoltick P, Khalili K, Andrews D (1996) Detection of JC virus DNA sequence and expression of the viral oncoprotein, tumor antigen, in brain of immunocompetent patient with oligoastrocytoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:7352–7357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Rodriguez HA, Berthrong M (1966) Multiple primary intracranial tumors in von Recklinghausen’s neurofibromatosis. Arch Neurol 14:467–475

    Google Scholar 

  120. Ron E, Modan B, Boice JD Jr, Alfandary E, Stovall M, Chetrit A, Katz L (1988) Tumors of the brain and nervous system after radiotherapy in childhood. N Engl J Med 319:1033–1039

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Rosso P, Terracini B, Fears TR, Jankovic M, Fossati BF, Arrighini A, Carli M, Cordero dM, Garre ML, Guazzelli C (1994) Second malignant tumors after elective end of therapy for a first cancer in childhood: a multicenter study in Italy. Int J Cancer 59:451–456

    Google Scholar 

  122. Ryan P, Lee MW, North B, McMichael AJ (1992) Amalgam fillings, diagnostic dental x-rays and tumours of the brain and meninges. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol 28B:91–95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Savitz DA, Ahlbom A (1994) Epidemiologic evidence on cancer in relation to residential and occupational exposures. In: Carpenter DO, Ayrapetyan S (eds) Biological effects of electric and magnetic fields. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 233–261

  124. Savitz DA, Kaune WT (1993) Childhood cancer in relation to a modified residential wire code. Environ Health Perspect 101:76–80

    Google Scholar 

  125. Savitz DA, Loomis DP (1995) Magnetic field exposure in relation to leukemia and brain cancer mortality among electric utility workers. Am J Epidemiol 141:123–134

    Google Scholar 

  126. Schlehofer B, Blettner M, Becker N, Martinsohn C, Wahrendorf J (1992) Medical risk factors and the development of brain tumors. Cancer 69:2541–2547

    Google Scholar 

  127. Schlehofer B, Blettner M, Preston-Martin S, Niehoff D, Wahrendorf J, Arslan A, Ahlbom A, Choi WN, Giles GG, Howe GR, Little J, Menegoz F, Ryan P (1999) Role of medical history in brain tumour development. Results from the international adult brain tumour study. Int J Cancer 82:155–160

    Google Scholar 

  128. Schwartzbaum J, Jonsson F, Ahlbom A, Preston-Martin S, Lonn S, Soderberg KC, Feychting M (2003) Cohort studies of association between self-reported allergic conditions, immune-related diagnoses and glioma and meningioma risk. Int J Cancer 106:423–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Shugg D, Allen BJ, Blizzard L, Dwyer T, Roder D (1994) Brain cancer incidence, mortality and case survival: observations from two Australian cancer registries. Int J Cancer 59:765–770

    Google Scholar 

  130. Siemiatycki J, Richardson L, Straif K, Latreille B, Lakhani R, Campbell S, Rousseau MC, Boffetta P (2004) Listing occupational carcinogens. Environ Health Perspect 112:1447–1459

    Google Scholar 

  131. Silber JR, Blank A, Bobola MS, Mueller BA, Kolstoe DD, Ojemann GA, Berger MS (1996) Lack of the DNA repair protein O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase in histologically normal brain adjacent to primary human brain tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:6941–6946

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Soffer D, Gomori JM, Pomeranz S, Siegal T (1990) Gliomas following low-dose irradiation to the head report of three cases. J Neurooncol 8:67–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Stevens RG (1996) Epidemiological studies of electromagnetic fields and health. In: Polk C, Postow E (eds) Handbook of biological effects of electromagnetic fields. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 275–294

  134. Stiller CA, Nectoux J (1994) International incidence of childhood brain and spinal tumours. Int J Epidemiol 23:458–464

    Google Scholar 

  135. Stroup NE, Blair A, Erikson GE (1986) Brain cancer and other causes of death in anatomists. J Natl Cancer Inst 77:1217–1224

    Google Scholar 

  136. Swensen AR, Bushhouse SA (1998) Childhood cancer incidence and trends in Minnesota, 1988–1994. Minn Med 81:27–32

    Google Scholar 

  137. Tedeschi-Blok N, Schwartzbaum J, Lee M, Miike R, Wrensch M (2001) Dietary calcium consumption and astrocytic glioma: the San Francisco Bay Area Adult Glioma Study, 1991–1995. Nutr Cancer 39:196–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. Thierault G, Goldberg M, Miller AB, Armstrong B, Guenel P, Deadman J, Imbernon E, To T, Chevalier A, Cyr D, et al (1994) Cancer risks associated with occupational exposure to magnetic fields among electric utility workers in Ontario and Quebec, Canada and France: 1970–1989. Am J Epidemiol 139:550–572

    Google Scholar 

  139. Tondel M, Carlsson G, Hardell L, Eriksson M, Jakobsson S, Flodin U, Skoldestig A, Axelson O (1996) Incidence of neoplasms in ages 0–19 y in parts of Sweden with high137Cs fallout after the Chernobyl accident. Health Phys 71:947–950

    Google Scholar 

  140. Tornaletti S, Pfeifer GP (1995) Complete and tissue-independent methylation of CpG sites in the p53 gene: implications for mutations in human cancers. Oncogene 10:1493–1499

    Google Scholar 

  141. Trizna Z, de Andrade M, Kyritsis AP, Briggs K, Levin VA, Bruner JM, Wei Q, Bondy ML (1998) Genetic polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferase mu and theta, N-acetyltransferase, and CYP1A1 and risk of gliomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7:553–555

    Google Scholar 

  142. Vilchez RA, Butel JS (2004) Emergent human pathogen simian virus 40 and its role in cancer. Clin Microbiol Rev 17:495–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Vilchez RA, Kozinetz CA, Arrington AS, Madden CR, Butel JS (2003) Simian virus 40 in human cancers. Am J Med 114:675–684

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Villeneuve PJ, Agnew DA, Johnson KC, Mao Y (2002) Brain cancer and occupational exposure to magnetic fields among men: results from a Canadian population-based case-control study. Int J Epidemiol 31:210–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Von Deimling A, Foster R, Krone W (2000) Neurofibromatosis type 1. In: Kleihues P, Cavenee WK (eds) World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the nervous system. IARC Press, Lyon, pp 216–218

  146. Walrath J, Fraumeni JJ (1984) Cancer and other causes of death among embalmers. Cancer Res 44:4638–4641

    Google Scholar 

  147. Walter AW, Hancock ML, Pui CH, Hudson MM, Ochs JS, Rivera GK, Pratt CB, Boyett JM, Kun LE (1998) Secondary brain tumors in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia at St Jude Children’s Research Hospital. J Clin Oncol 16:3761–3767

    Google Scholar 

  148. Werner MH, Phuphanich S, Lyman GH (1995) Increasing incidence of primary brain tumors in the elderly in Florida. Cancer Control 2:309–314

    Google Scholar 

  149. Wiemels JL, Wiencke JK, Sison JD, Miike R, McMillan A, Wrensch M (2002) History of allergies among adults with glioma and controls. Int J Cancer 98:609–615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Wong O, Harris F (2000) Cancer mortality study of employees at lead battery plants and lead smelters, 1947–1995. Am J Ind Med 38:255–270

    Google Scholar 

  151. Wrensch M, Yost M, Miike R, Lee G, Touchstone J (1999) Adult glioma in relation to residential power frequency electromagnetic field exposures in the San Francisco Bay area. Epidemiology 10:523–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Zheng T, Cantor KP, Zhang Y, Chiu BC, Lynch CF (2001) Risk of brain glioma not associated with cigarette smoking or use of other tobacco products in Iowa. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10:413–414

    Google Scholar 

  153. Zheng T, Cantor KP, Zhang Y, Keim S, Lynch CF (2001) Occupational risk factors for brain cancer: a population-based case-control study in Iowa. J Occup Environ Med 43:317–324

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. International Agency for Research on Cancer, 150 cours Albert Thomas, 69372, Lyon, France

    Hiroko Ohgaki

  2. Department of Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

    Paul Kleihues

Authors
  1. Hiroko Ohgaki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Kleihues
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hiroko Ohgaki.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ohgaki, H., Kleihues, P. Epidemiology and etiology of gliomas. Acta Neuropathol 109, 93–108 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-005-0991-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-005-0991-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation