Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reproductive and foraging energetics of pinnipeds: Implications for life history patterns

  • Chapter
The Behaviour of Pinnipeds

Abstract

In his classic treatise on the evolution of pinniped breeding systems, Bartholomew (1970) identified terrestrial parturition and marine feeding as prerequisites for the evolution of polygyny. Such spatial and/or temporal separation of feeding from reproduction is a fundamental component of the reproductive biology of all pinnipeds, regardless of their breeding system. Adaptation to this constraint has resulted in reproductive patterns that incorporate varying periods of time spent fasting on the rookery and feeding at sea (Bonner, 1984; Kovacs and Lavigne, 1986). This chapter will examine the partitioning of energy during lactation and its acquisition while foraging. In this way the fundamental relationship between the foraging ecology and reproductive pattern of pinnipeds can be examined. Information about feeding is difficult to acquire, and conclusions are often of necessity inferred from records from relatively new instruments like time/depth recorders. Previous to the development of this technology, our understanding of foraging was based on measures such as the animal’s partitioning of time on land and at sea, and simple indices of feeding such as stomach content and scat analyses. Because of these constraints, much of what follows is speculative and must sometimes be based on a small number of species.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Amoroso, E. C. and Mathews, L. H. (1952) Reproduction and lactation in the seal, in Report of the II International Congress on Physiology and Pathology of Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemination: Vol. 1, 193–201, Copenhagen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S. S. and Fedak, M. A. (1987) Gray seal energetics: Females invest more in male offspring. J. Zool. 211: 667–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth, U. S., Ramaiah, G. D. and Keyes, M. C. (1966) Species difference in the composition of milk with special reference to the northern fur seal. J. Dairy Sci. 49: 1206–1211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, G. A. (1970) A model for the evolution of pinniped polygyny. Evolution 24: 546–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengston, J. L. (1986) Pack ice seal research in the Weddell Sea along the Antarctic peninsula, in Report of the meeting of the SCAR group of specialists on seals. Biomass Report Series No. 50. San Diego, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonner, W. N. (1984) Lactation strategies in pinnipeds: Problems for a marine mammalian group, in Physiological Strategies in Lactation: 253–272 Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, No. 51 (M. Peaker, R. G. Vernon and C. H. Knight, eds), London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, D., Boness, D. J. and Oftedal, O. T. (1985) Birth to weaning in 4 days: Remarkable growth in the hooded seal, Cystophora cristata. Can. J. Zool. 63: 2841–2846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, D., Boness, D. J. and Oftedal, O. T. (1987) Mass transfer from mother to pup and subsequent mass loss by the weaned pup in the hooded seal, Cystophora cristata. Can. J. Zool. 65: 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryden, M. M. (1968) Lactation and suckling in relation to early growth of the southern elephant seal. Aust. J. Zool. 16: 739–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calder, W. A. (1984) Size, Function and Life History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 431 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellini, M. A. and Kooyman, G. L. (1989) Behavior of freely diving animals. Undersea Biomed. Res. 16: 355–362.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, A. (1980) The biochemical composition of krill, Euphausia superba from South Georgia. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 43: 221–236.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. (1987) Isotopic methods for quantifying material and energy balance of free-ranging marine mammals, in Approaches to Marine Mammal Energetics, Society for Marine Mammal Science Special Publication no. 1: 43–66 (A. C. Huntley, D. P. Costa, G. A. J. Worthy and M. A. Castellini, eds), Lawrence, KA: Allen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. (1988a) Methods for studying the energetics of freely diving animals. Can. J. Zool. 66: 45–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. (1988b) Assessment of the impact of the California sea lion and northern elephant seal on commercial fisheries, in California Sea Grant: Biennial Rept. of Completed Projects 1984–1986: 36–43, California Sea Grant College Program, University of California, LaJolla Publication R-CSCP-024.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. and Croxall, J. P. (1988) The effect of prey availability on the foraging energetics of Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella. Scientific committee on Antarctic Research Fifth Symposium on Antarctic Biology, 29 August 1988 to 3 September, Hobart, Tasmania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. and Gentry, R. L. (1986) Free-ranging energetics of northern fur seals, in Fur seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 79–101 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. and Trillmich, F. (1988) Mass changes and metabolism during the perinatal fast: A comparison between Antarctic (Arctocephalus gazella) and Galapagos fur seals [A. galapagoensis). Physiol. Zool. 61: 160–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Thorson, P. H., Herpolsheimer, J. G. and Croxall, J. P. (1985) Reproductive bioenergetics of the Antarctic fur seal. Ant. J. US 20: 176–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Le Boeuf, B. J., Ortiz, C. L. and Huntley, A. C. (1986) The energetics of lactation in the northern elephant seal Mirounga angustiiostris. J. Zool. 209: 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Trillmich, F. and Croxall, J. P. (1988) Intraspecific allometry of neonatal size in the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol 22: 361–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Croxall, J. P. and Duck, C. (1989a) Foraging energetics of Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella, in relation to changes in prey availability. Ecology 70: 596–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Thorson, P. H. and Kretzmann, M. (1989b) Diving and foraging energetics of the Australian sea lion, Neophoca cinerea. Am. Zool. 29: 71A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., Antonelis, G. P. and De Long, R. (1990) Effects of El Niño on the foraging energetics of the California sea lion, in Effects of El Niño on Pinnipeds (F. Trillmich and K. Ono, eds), Springer Verlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croxall, J. P., Everson, I., Kooyman, G. L., Ricketts, C. and Davis, R. W. (1985) Fur seal diving behavior in relation to vertical distribution of krill. J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Croxall, J. P., Davis, R. W., and O’Connell M. J. (1988) Diving patterns in relation to diet of gentoo and macaroni penguins at South Georgia. Condor 90: 157–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doidge, D. W., McCann, T. S. and Croxall, J. P. (1986) Attendance behavior of Antarctic fur seals, in Fur seals: maternal strategies on Land and at Sea: 102–114 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisner, R. A. (1987) The contribution of anaerobic metabolism to maximum exercise in seals, in Approaches to Marine Mammal Energetics, Society for Marine Mammal Science Special Publication no. 1: 109–113 (A. C. Huntley, D. P. Costa, G. A. J. Worthy and M. A. Castellini, eds), Lawrence, KA: Allen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elsner, R. A. and Ashwell-Erickson, S. (1982) Maxmum oxygen consumption of exercising harbor seals. Physiologist 25: 279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fay, F. H. (1982) Ecology and biology of the Pacific Walrus Odobenus rosmarus divergens Iiiiger. U. S, Fish. Wildl. Serv. N. Amer. Fauna No. 74 pp. 1–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedak, M. A. and Anderson, S. A. (1982) The energetics of lactation: Accurate measurements from a large wild mammal, the gray seal (Halichoerus grypus). J. Zool. 198: 473–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedak, M. and Anderson, S (1987) Estimating the energy requirements of seals from weight changes, in Approaches to Marine Mammal Energetics. Spec. Publ. 1: 205–226 (A. C. Huntley, D. P. Costa, G. A. J. Worthy and M. A. Castellini eds) Lawrence, KA: Allen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldkamp, S. D., De Long, R. L. and Antonellis, G. A. (1989) Foraging behavior of California sea lions, Zalophus californianus. Can. J. Zool. 67: 872–883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, W. R., Pitman, R. L. and Ainley, D. G. (1989) Seabird and fur seal responses to vertically migrating winter krill swarms in Antarctica. Polar Biol. 10: 37–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, K. J. and Lowry, L. F. (1981) Ringed, Baikal, and Caspian seals — Phoca hispida, Phoca sibrica, and Phoca caspica, in handbook of Marine Mammals, Vol 2: 29–54 (S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, eds), New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L. and Holt, J. R. (1986) Attendance behavior of northern fur seals, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and At Sea: 41–60 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., Costa, D. P. Croxall, J. P. et al. (1986a) Synthesis and conclusions, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 220–264 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., Kooyman, G. L. and Goebel, M. E. (1986b) Feeding and diving behavior of northern fur seals, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 61–78 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., Roberts, W. E. and Cawthorn, M. W. (1987) Diving behavior of the Hooker’s sea lion. Seventh Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals. Society of Marine Mammalogy, December 5–9, 1987, Miami, Fl.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., Goebel, M. E., Calambokidis, J. and De Long, R. L. Comparative growth rates of northern fur seal neonates. Unpubl. M.S., National Marine Mammal Lab., Seattle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedrick, M. S. and Duffield, D. A. (in press) Haematological and rheological characteristics of blood in seven marine mammal species: Physiological implications for diving behaviour. J. Zool. Lond.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedrick, M. S., Duffield, D. A. and Cornell, L. H. (1986) Blood viscosity and optimal hematocrit in a deep-diving mammal, the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris). Can. J. Zool. 64: 2081–2085.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, R. D. (1986) Microcomputer monitor and blood sampler for free-diving Weddell seals. J. Appl. Physiol. 61: 1570–1576.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, L. V., Costa, D. P., Huntley, A. C. and Le Boeuf, B. J. (1988) Behavioral and physiological measurements of maternal investment in the Steller sea lion, Eumatopias jubatus. J. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 4: 44–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, G. W., Siniff, D. B. and Reichle, R. (1975) Colony behavior of Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddelli at Hutton Cliffs, Antarctica. Rapp. P. V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 169: 228–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerley, G. I. H. (1985) Pup growth in the fur seals Arctocephalus tropicalus and A. gazella, on Marion Island. J. Zool. 205: 315–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, P. M. and Norris, K. S. (1982) A harbor seal, Phoca vitulina richardi, taken from a sablefish trap. Calif. Fish Game 68: 123–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. (1965) Techniques used in measuring diving capacities of Weddell seals. Polar. Rec. 12: 391–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. (1981) Weddell Seal: Consummate Diver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. (1985) Physiology without restraint in diving mammals. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 1: 166–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. (1989) Diverse Divers: Physiology and Behavior. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 200 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. and Gentry, R. L. (1986) Diving behavior of South African fur seals, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 142–152 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. and Trillmich, F. (1986a) Diving behavior of Galapagos fur seals, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 168–185 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. and Trillmich, F. (1986b) Diving behavior of Galapagos sea lions, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 186–195 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Kerem, D. H., Campbell, W. B. and Wright, J. J. (1973) Pulmonary gas exchange in freely diving Weddell seals. Respir. Physiol. 17: 283–290.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Gentry, R. L. and Urquhart, D. L. (1976) Northern fur seal diving behavior: A new approach to its study. Science 193: 411–412.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Wahrenbrock, E. A., Castellini, M.A., Davis, R. W. and Sinnett, E. E. (1980) Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during voluntary diving in Weddell seals: Evidence of preferred pathways from blood chemistry and behavior. J. Comp. Physiol. B 138: 335–346.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Billups, J. O. and Farewell, W. D. (1983a) Two recently developed recorders for monitoring diving activity of marine birds and marnals, in Experimental Biology at Sea: 197–214 (A. G. MacDonald and I. G. Priede, eds), London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Castellini, M. A., Davis, R. W. and Maue, R. A. (1983b) Aerobic diving limits of immature Weddell seals. J. Comp. Physiol. B 151: 171–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Davis, R. W. and Croxall, J. P. (1986) Diving behavior of Antarctic fur seals, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 115–125 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, K. M. and Lavigne, D. M. (1986) Maternal investment and neonatal growth in phocid seals. J. Anim. Ecol. 55: 1035–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, D. L. (1988) The behavioral ecology of air breathing by aquatic animals. Can. J. Zool. 66: 89–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretzmann, M. B., Costa, D. P., Higgins, L. V. and Needham, D. J. (in M.S.) Milk composition of Australian sea lions, Neophoca cinerea.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne, D. M. and Kovacs, K. (1988) Harps and Hoods, Ice Breeding Seals of the Northwest Atlantic, Univ. Waterloo Press. 174 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laws, R. M. (1984) Seals, in Antarctic Ecology, Vol. 2: 621–715 (R. M. Laws, ed.), New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf, B. J., Costa D. P., Huntley, A. C., Kooyman, G. L. and Davis, R. W. (1986) Pattern and depth of dives in northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. J. Zool. 208: 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf, B. J., Costa, D. P., Huntley, A. C. and Feldkamp, S. D. (1988) Continuous, deep diving in female northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. Can. f. Zool. 66: 446–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenfant, C., Johansen, K. and Torrance, J. D. (1970) Gas transport and oxygen storage capacity in some pinnipeds and the sea otter. Resp. Physiol. 9: 277–286.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin, T. R., Bengston, J. L. and Merrick, R. L. (1987) Characteristics of feeding trips of female northern fur seals. Can. J. Zool. 65: 2079–2084.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattlin, R. H. (1978) Population biology, thermoregulation and site preference of the New Zealand fur seal Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson, 1828) on the Open Bay Islands, New Zealand. PhD dissertation, Univ. Canterbury, Christchurch, N.Z.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, D. C. (1974) Marine primary productivity of the Galapagos archipelago. PhD thesis, Ohio State Univ., Columbus.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, T. S., Fedak, M. A. and Harwood, J. (1989) Parental investment in southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 25:81–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T. and Iverson, S. J. (1987) Hydrogen isotopic methodology for measurement of milk intake and energetics of growth in suckling young, in Approaches to Marine Mammal Energetics, Society for Marine Mammal Science Special Publication no. 1: 67–96 (A. C. Huntley, D. P. Costa, G. A. J. Worthy and M. A. Castellini, eds), Lawrence, KA: Allen Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T., Iverson, S. J. and Boness, D. J. (1987a) Milk and energy intakes of suckling California sea lion Zalophus californianus pups in relation to sex, growth, and predicted maintenance requirements. Physiol. Zool. 60: 560–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T., Boness, D. J. and Tedman, R. A. (1987b) The behavior, physiology, and anatomy of lactation in the Pinnipedia. Cur. Mammal. 1: 175–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T., Boness, D. J. and Bowen, W. D. (1988) The composition of hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) milk: An adaptation for postnatal fattening. Can. J. Zool. 66: 318–322.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T., Bowen, W. D., Widdowson, E. M. and Boness, D. J. (1989) Effects of suckling and the postsuckling fast on weights of the body and internal organs of harp and hooded seal pups. Biol. Neonate 56: 283–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ono, K. A., Boness, D. J., Oftedal, O. T. (1987) The effect of a natural environmental disturbance on maternal investment and pup behavior in the California sea lion. Behav. Ecol. Socbiol 21: 109–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orians, G. H. and Pearson, N. E. (1977) On the theory of central place foraging, in Analysis of Ecological Systems: 153–177 (D. J. Horn, G. R. Stairs and R. D. Mitchell, eds), Ohio State University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz, C. L., Costa, D. P. and Le Boeuf, B. J. (1978) Water and energy flux in fasting weaned elephant seal pups (Mirounga angustirostris). Physiol. Zool. 51: 166–178.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz, C. L., Le Boeuf, B. J. and Costa, D. P. (1984) Milk intake of elephant seal pups: an index of parental investment. Am. Natur. 124: 416–421.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peaker, M. and Goode, J.A. (1978) The milk of the fur seal arctocephalus tropicalis gazella, in particular the composition of the aqueous phase. J. Zool. Lond. 185: 469–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perez, M. A. and Mooney, E. E. (1986) Increased food and energy consumption of lactation northern fur seals, Callorhinus ursinus. Fish. Bull. 84: 371–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilson, M. E. Q. and Kelly, A. L. (1962) Composition of milk from Zalophus californianus, the California sea lion. Science 135: 104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pond, C. M. (1977) The significance of lactation in the evolution of mammals. Evolution 31: 177–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiter, J., Stinson, N. L. and Le Boeuf, B. J. (1978) Northern elephant seal development: The transition from weaning to nutritional independence. Behav. Ecol Sociobiol. 3: 337–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Repenning, C. A., Ray, C. E. and Grigorescu, D. (1979) Pinniped biogeography, in Historical Biogeography, Plate Tectonics, and the Changing Environment: 357–369 (J. Gray and J. Boucot, eds), Corvallis: Oregon State Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riedman, M. and Ortiz, C. L. (1979) Milk composition during lactation in the northern elephant seal. Physiol Zool 52: 240–249.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, R. E. A. and Lavigne, D. M. (1984) Energy transfer and female condition in nursing harp seals Phoca groenlandica. Holarct. Ecol 7: 182–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirling, I. (1975) Factors effecting the social behaviour in the Pinnipedia, in The Biology of the Seal: 205–212 (K. A. Ronald and W. A. Mansfield, eds), Rapp. P. -v. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 169

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirling, I. (1983) The evolution of mating systems in pinnipeds, in Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior: 489–527 (J. F. Eisenberg and D. G. Kleinman, eds), American Society of Mammalogists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedman, R. and Green B. (1987) Water and sodium fluxes and lactational energetics in suckling pups of Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddelli). J. Zool. 212: 29–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Testa, W., Hill, S. E. B. and Siniff, D. B. (1989) Diving behavior and maternal investment in Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddelli). Mar. Mamm. Sci 5: 399–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. A. and De Master, D. P. (1983) Diel hault-out patterns of Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli) females and their pups. Can. J. Zool. 61: 2084–2086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trillmich, F. and Lechner, E. (1986) Milk of the Galapagos fur seal and sea lion, with a comparison of the milk of eared seals (Otariidae). J. Zool. 209: 271–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trillmich, F., Kooyman, G. L., Majluf, P. and Sanchez-Grinan, M. (1986) Attendance and diving behavior of south American fur seals during El Niño in 1983, in Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea: 153–167 (R. L. Gentry and G. L. Kooyman, eds), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, S. (1981) Life in Moving Fluids. Boston: Willard Grant Press. 352 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, R. P. and Bain, C. A. R. (1984) An inexpensive depth gauge for penguins. J. Wild. Manage. 48: 1077–1084.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthy, G. A. J. and Lavigne, D. M. (1983) Changes in energy stores during postnatal development of the harp seal, Phoca groenlandica. J. Mammal. 64: 89–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Daniel P. Costa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and Ocean Sciences Center, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, A1B 3X9, Canada

    Deane Renouf (Professor) (Professor)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1991 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Costa, D.P. (1991). Reproductive and foraging energetics of pinnipeds: Implications for life history patterns. In: Renouf, D. (eds) The Behaviour of Pinnipeds. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3100-1_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3100-1_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-5373-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-3100-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation