Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Malnutrition and infection in industrialized countries

  • Chapter
Book cover Pediatric Infectious Diseases Revisited

Part of the book series: Birkhäuser Advances in Infectious Diseases ((BAID))

Abstract

Malnutrition is a major cause of immune deficiency that directly affects the acute phase response and leads to greater frequency and severity of common infections. Primary malnutrition is not uncommon in wealthy industrialized societies due to poverty, lack of education, food allergies, inappropriate or limited diet, or eating disorders. Inadequate intake of micronutrients including vitamin A, E, calcium, iron and zinc are prevalent among children under 10 years of age and often unrecognized. Although chronic infectious diseases are less prevalent in industrialized countries, infections with HIV, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and hepatitis C virus are significant problems and parasitic infections may appear among immigrant populations. Obesity is becoming increasingly common in children and may enhance risk of serious complications of common infections. Adequate nutrition is critically important for the development of the immune system, immune response to environmental antigens and pathogens, and for the maintenance of host defense. In children with congenital anomalies or medical conditions affecting growth, poor nutrient status will have a disproportionate effect on development, immunity, and susceptibility to infection since nutrients are cofactors in immune response. Defects in T cell immunity lead to increased susceptibility to intracellular pathogens, reactivation of viral infections, and development of opportunistic infections. Zinc deficiency inhibits Th1 cytokine responses, thymic hormone activity, and lymphopoiesis. Vitamin A deficiency is associated with severity of many infections including measles, rotavirus, HIV, and bacterial infections. Selenium deficiency is associated with HIV progression. Nutrient cofactors of innate immune response include 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which is a direct regulator of antimicrobial responses. The overall impact of chronic subclinical malnutrition in children may determine the quality and duration of immune response to vaccines and may be an important topic for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Cunningham-Rundles S, McNeeley DF, Moon A (2005) Mechanisms of nutrient modulation of the immune response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 115: 1119–1128; quiz 1129

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Ganji V, Hampl JS, Betts NM (2003) Race-, gender-and age-specific differences in dietary micronutrient intakes of US children. Int J Food Sci Nutr 54: 485–490

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Fattal-Valevski A, Kesler A, Sela BA, Nitzan-Kaluski D, Rotstein M, Mesterman R, Toledano-Alhadef H, Stolovitch C, Hoffmann C, Globus O et al (2005) Outbreak of life-threatening thiamine deficiency in infants in Israel caused by a defective soy-based formula. Pediatrics 115: e233–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Obladen M, Loui A, Kampmann W, Renz H (1998) Zinc deficiency in rapidly growing preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 87: 685–691

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Stevens J, Lubitz L (1998) Symptomatic zinc deficiency in breast-fed term and premature infants. J Paediatr Child Health 34: 97–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Chatoor I, Surles J, Ganiban J, Beker L, Paez LM, Kerzner B (2004) Failure to thrive and cognitive development in toddlers with infantile anorexia. Pediatrics 113: e440–447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hackett A, Nathan I, Burgess L (1998) Is a vegetarian diet adequate for children. Nutr Health 12: 189–195

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Sanders TA (1995) Vegetarian diets and children. Pediatr Clin North Am 42: 955–965

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Accorsi S, Fabiani M, Nattabi B, Corrado B, Iriso R, Ayella EO, Pido B, Onek PA, Ogwang M, Declich S (2005) The disease profile of poverty: morbidity and mortality in northern Uganda in the context of war, population displacement and HIV/AIDS. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 226–233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Carvalho NF, Kenney RD, Carrington PH, Hall DE (2001) Severe nutritional deficiencies in toddlers resulting from health food milk alternatives. Pediatrics 107: E46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Eastlack JP, Grande KK, Levy ML, Nigro JF (1999) Dermatosis in a child with kwashiorkor secondary to food aversion. Pediatr Dermatol 16: 95–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Liu T, Howard RM, Mancini AJ, Weston WL, Paller AS, Drolet BA, Esterly NB, Levy ML, Schachner L, Frieden IJ (2001) Kwashiorkor in the United States: fad diets, perceived and true milk allergy, and nutritional ignorance. Arch Dermatol 137: 630–636

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Juyal R, Osmamy M, Black RE, Dhingra U, Sarkar A, Dhingra P, Verma P, Marwah D, Saxsena R, Menon VP et al (2004) Efficacy of micronutrient fortification of milk on morbidity in pre-school children and growth — a double blind randomised controlled trial. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 13: S44

    Google Scholar 

  14. Lyons GH, Stangoulis JC, Graham RD (2004) Exploiting micronutrient interaction to optimize biofortification programs: the case for inclusion of selenium and iodine in the HarvestPlus program. Nutr Rev 62: 247–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Beck MA, Williams-Toone D, Levander OA (2003) Coxsackievirus B3-resistant mice become susceptible in Se/vitamin E deficiency. Free Radic Biol Med 34: 1263–1270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. van den Broek N (2003) Anaemia and micronutrient deficiencies. Br Med Bull 67: 149–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Klinger G, Shamir R, Singer P, Diamond EM, Josefsberg Z, Sirota L (1999) Parenteral selenium supplementation in extremely low birth weight infants: inadequate dosage but no correlation with hypothyroidism. J Perinatol 19: 568–572

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Viteri FE, Gonzalez H (2002) Adverse outcomes of poor micronutrient status in childhood and adolescence. Nutr Rev 60: S77–83

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Mangge H, Schauenstein K, Stroedter L, Griesl A, Maerz W, Borkenstein M (2004) Low grade inflammation in juvenile obesity and type 1 diabetes associated with early signs of atherosclerosis. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 112: 378–382

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Boeck MA, Chen C, Cunningham-Rundles S (1993) Altered immune function in a morbidly obese pediatric population. Ann NY Acad Sci 699: 253–256

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Dovio A, Caramello V, Masera RG, Sartori ML, Saba L, Tinivella M, Prolo P, Termine A, Avagnina P, Angeli A (2004) Natural killer cell activity and sensitivity to positive and negative modulation in uncomplicated obese subjects: relationships to leptin and diet composition. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28: 894–901

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Tanaka S, Inoue S, Isoda F, Waseda M, Ishihara M, Yamakawa T, Sugiyama A, Takamura Y, Okuda K (1993) Impaired immunity in obesity: suppressed but reversible lymphocyte responsiveness. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 17: 631–636

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Sanchez-Margalet V, Martin-Romero C, Santos-Alvarez J, Goberna R, Najib S, Gonzalez-Yanes C (2003) Role of leptin as an immunomodulator of blood mononuclear cells: mechanisms of action. Clin Exp Immunol 133: 11–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Faggioni R, Feingold KR, Grunfeld C (2001) Leptin regulation of the immune response and the immunodeficiency of malnutrition. FASEB J 15: 2565–2571

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Gibson WT, Farooqi IS, Moreau M, DePaoli AM, Lawrence E, O’Rahilly S, Trussell RA (2004) Congenital leptin deficiency due to homozygosity for the Delta133G mutation: report of another case and evaluation of response to four years of leptin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 4821–4826

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Falagas ME, Kompoti M (2006) Obesity and infection. Lancet Infect Dis 6: 438–446

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Fernandez-Twinn DS, Ozanne SE (2006) Mechanisms by which poor early growth programs type-2 diabetes, obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Physiol Behav 88: 234–243

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Russell BJ, White AV, Newbury J, Hattch C, Thurley J, Chang AB (2004) Evaluation of hospitalisation for Indigenous children with malnutrition living in Central Australia. Aust J Rural Health 12: 187–191

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Schneider SM, Veyres P, Pivot X, Soummer AM, Jambou P, Filippi J, van Obberghen E, Hebuterne X (2004) Malnutrition is an independent factor associated with nosocomial infections. Br J Nutr 92: 105–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Najera O, Gonzalez C, Toledo G, Lopez L, Ortiz R (2004) Flow cytometry study of lymphocyte subsets in malnourished and well-nourished children with bacterial infections. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 11: 577–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Anstead GM, Chandrasekar B, Zhao W, Yang J, Perez LE, Melby PC (2001) Malnutrition alters the innate immune response and increases early visceralization following Leishmania donovani infection. Infect Immun 69: 4709–4718

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Brewster DR, Manary MJ, Menzies IS, Henry RL, O’Loughlin EV (1997) Comparison of milk and maize based diets in kwashiorkor. Arch Dis Child 76: 242–248

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Sakamoto M, Fujisawa Y, Nishioka K (1998) Physiologic role of the complement system in host defense, disease, and malnutrition. Nutrition 14: 391–398

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Peters-Golden M, Canetti C, Mancuso P, Coffey MJ (2005) Leukotrienes: underappreciated mediators of innate immune responses. J Immunol 174: 589–594

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Wang TT, Nestel FP, Bourdeau V, Nagai Y, Wang Q, Liao J, Tavera-Mendoza L, Lin R, Hanrahan JW, Mader S et al (2004) Cutting edge: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a direct inducer of antimicrobial peptide gene expression. J Immunol 173: 2909–2912

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Mancuso P, Gottschalk A, Phare SM, Peters-Golden M, Lukacs NW, Huffnagle GB (2002) Leptin-deficient mice exhibit impaired host defense in Gram-negative pneumonia. J Immunol 168: 4018–4024

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Reid M, Badaloo A, Forrester T, Morlese JF, Heird WC, Jahoor F (2002) The acute-phase protein response to infection in edematous and nonedematous protein-energy malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 76: 1409–1415

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Ekiz C, Agaoglu L, Karakas Z, Gurel N, Yalcin I (2005) The effect of iron deficiency anemia on the function of the immune system. Hematol J 5: 579–583

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Stephensen CB (2001) Vitamin A, infection, and immune function. Annu Rev Nutr 21: 167–192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Piemonti L, Monti P, Sironi M, Fraticelli P, Leone BE, Dal Cin E, Allavena P, Di Carlo V (2000) Vitamin D3 affects differentiation, maturation, and function of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. J Immunol 164: 4443–4451

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Coutant F, Agaugue S, Perrin-Cocon L, Andre P, Lotteau V (2004) Sensing environmental lipids by dendritic cell modulates its function. J Immunol 172: 54–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Bastagli L, Facchini A, Mariani E, Savarino L, Sassi S, Cucinotta D, Lenaz G (2000) Effect of micronutrient status on natural killer cell immune function in healthy free-living subjects aged ≥90 y. Am J Clin Nutr 71: 590–598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Rikimaru T, Taniguchi K, Yartey JE, Kennedy DO, Nkrumah FK (1998) Humoral and cell-mediated immunity in malnourished children in Ghana. Eur J Clin Nutr 52: 344–350

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Dylewski ML, Mastro AM, Picciano MF (2002) Maternal selenium nutrition and neonatal immune system development. Biol Neonate 82: 122–127

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Vasquez-Garibay E, Campollo-Rivas O, Romero-Velarde E, Mendez-Estrada C, Garcia-Iglesias T, Alvizo-Mora JG, Vizmanos-Lamotte B (2002) Effect of renutrition on natural and cell-mediated immune response in infants with severe malnutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 34: 296–301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Marodi L (2006) Innate cellular immune responses in newborns. Clin Immunol 118: 137–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Carneiro-Filho BA, Bushen OY, Brito GA, Lima AA, Guerrant RL (2003) Glutamine analogues as adjunctive therapy for infectious diarrhea. Curr Infect Dis Rep 5: 114–119

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Cano PG, Aguero G, Perdigon G (2002) Immunological effects of yogurt addition to a re-nutrition diet in a malnutrition experimental model. J Dairy Res 69: 303–316

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Vandenbulcke L, Bachert C, Van Cauwenberge P, Claeys S (2006) The innate immune system and its role in allergic disorders. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 139: 159–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Savino W (2002) The thymus gland is a target in malnutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 56Suppl 3: S46–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Palacio A, Lopez M, Perez-Bravo F, Monkeberg F, Schlesinger L (2002) Leptin levels are associated with immune response in malnourished infants. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87: 3040–3046

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Zaman K, Baqui AH, Yunus M, Sack RB, Chowdhury HR, Black RE (1997) Malnutrition, cell-mediated immune deficiency and acute upper respiratory infections in rural Bangladeshi children. Acta Paediatr 86: 923–927

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Perl A, Gergely P Jr, Puskas F, Banki K (2002) Metabolic switches of T cell activation and apoptosis. Antioxid Redox Signal 4: 427–443

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. McDade TW, Beck MA, Kuzawa C, Adair LS (2001) Prenatal undernutrition, postnatal environments, and antibody response to vaccination in adolescence. Am J Clin Nutr 74: 543–548

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Walrand S, Moreau K, Caldefie F, Tridon A, Chassagne J, Portefaix G, Cynober L, Beaufrere B, Vasson MP, Boirie Y (2001) Specific and nonspecific immune responses to fasting and refeeding differ in healthy young adult and elderly persons. Am J Clin Nutr 74: 670–678

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Prentice AM (1999) The thymus: a barometer of malnutrition. Br J Nutr 81: 345–347

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Hosea HJ, Rector ES, Taylor CG (2004) Dietary repletion can replenish reduced T cell subset numbers and lymphoid organ weight in zinc-deficient and energy-restricted rats. Br J Nutr 91: 741–747

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Fraker PJ, King LE (2004) Reprogramming of the immune system during zinc deficiency. Annu Rev Nutr 24: 277–298

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Forte WC, Santos de Menezes MC, Horta C, Carneiro Leao Bach R (2003) Serum IgE level in malnutrition. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 31: 83–86

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Moore SE, Goldblatt D, Bates CJ, Prentice AM (2003) Impact of nutritional status on antibody responses to different vaccines in undernourished Gambian children. Acta Paediatr 92: 170–176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Udani PM (1994) BCG vaccination in India and tuberculosis in children: newer facets. Indian J Pediatr 61: 451–462

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Chadha VK, Suryanarayana L, Suryanarayan HV, Srikantaramu N, Kumar P (2004) Protective effect of BCG among children vaccinated under universal immunization programme. Indian J Pediatr 71: 1069–1074

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Dawar M, Clark M, Deeks SL, Walop W, Ahmadipour N (2004) A fresh look at an old vaccine: does BCG have a role in 21st century Canada? Int J Circumpolar Health 63(Suppl 2): 230–236

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Goth SR, Chu RA, Gregg JP, Cherednichenko G, Pessah IN (2006) Uncoupling of ATP-mediated calcium signaling and dysregulated interleukin-6 secretion in dendritic cells by nanomolar thimerosal. Environ Health Perspect 114: 1083–1091

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Thibault H, Galan P, Selz F, Preziosi P, Olivier C, Badoual J, Hercberg S (1993) The immune response in iron-deficient young children: effect of iron supplementation on cell-mediated immunity. Eur J Pediatr 152: 120–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Mattsson N, Kilander A, Bjornsson E (2004) [Helicobacter pylori can in rare cases be the cause of iron and vitamin B 12 deficiency. No increased risk of iron and vitamin B 12 deficiency due to proton pump inhibitors.] Lakartidningen 101: 2014–2015

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Baysoy G, Ertem D, Ademoglu E, Kotiloglu E, Keskin S, Pehlivanoglu E (2004) Gastric histopathology, iron status and iron deficiency anemia in children with Helicobacter pylori infection. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 38: 146–151

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Dardenne M (2002) Zinc and immune function. Eur J Clin Nutr 56(Suppl 3): S20–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Botash AS, Nasca J, Dubowy R, Weinberger HL, Oliphant M (1992) Zincinduced copper deficiency in an infant. Am J Dis Child 146: 709–711

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Rayman MP (2000) The importance of selenium to human health. Lancet 356: 233–241

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Thorling EB, Overvad K, Geboers J (1986) Selenium status in Europe — human data. A multicenter study. Ann Clin Res 18: 3–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Stec A, Mochol J, Kurek L, Walkuska G, Chalabis-Mazurek A (2005) The influence of different factors on selenium levels in dairy cow herds in the centraleastern region of Poland. Pol J Vet Sci 8: 225–229

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Roekens EJ, Robberecht HJ, Deelstra HA (1986) Dietary selenium intake in Belgium for different population groups at risk for deficiency. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 182: 8–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Thomson CD (2004) Selenium and iodine intakes and status in New Zealand and Australia. Br J Nutr 91: 661–672

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Salonen JT, Alfthan G, Huttunen JK, Puska P (1984) Association between serum selenium and the risk of cancer. Am J Epidemiol 120: 342–349

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Virtamo J, Valkeila E, Alfthan G, Punsar S, Huttunen JK, Karvonen MJ (1987) Serum selenium and risk of cancer. A prospective follow-up of nine years. Cancer 60: 145–148

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Ferencik M, Ebringer L (2003) Modulatory effects of selenium and zinc on the immune system. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 48: 417–426

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lai S, Zhang G, Lai H, Fletcher MA, Sauberlich H, Page JB (1997) High risk of HIV-related mortality is associated with selenium deficiency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 15: 370–374

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Baeten JM, Mostad SB, Hughes MP, Overbaugh J, Bankson DD, Mandaliya K, Ndinya-Achola JO, Bwayo JJ, Kreiss JK (2001) Selenium deficiency is associated with shedding of HIV-1—infected cells in the female genital tract. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 26: 360–364

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Fawzi WW, Chalmers TC, Herrera MG, Mosteller F (1993) Vitamin A supplementation and child mortality. A meta-analysis. JAMA 269: 898–903

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Sommer A, Davidson FR (2002) Assessment and control of vitamin A deficiency: the Annecy Accords. J Nutr 132: 2845S–2850S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Aukrust P, Muller F, Ueland T, Svardal AM, Berge RK, Froland SS (2000) Decreased vitamin A levels in common variable immunodeficiency: vitamin A supplementation in vivo enhances immunoglobulin production and downregulates inflammatory responses. Eur J Clin Invest 30: 252–259

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Ahmed J, Zaman MM, Ali SM (2004) Immunological response to antioxidant vitamin supplementation in rural Bangladeshi school children with group A streptococcal infection. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 13: 226–230

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Wintergerst ES, Maggini S, Hornig DH (2006) Immune-enhancing role of vitamin C and zinc and effect on clinical conditions. Ann Nutr Metab 50: 85–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Akyon Y (2002) Effect of antioxidants on the immune response of Helicobacter pylori. Clin Microbiol Infect 8: 438–441

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Fischer CP, Hiscock NJ, Penkowa M, Basu S, Vessby B, Kallner A, Sjoberg LB, Pedersen BK (2004) Supplementation with vitamins C and E inhibits the release of interleukin-6 from contracting human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 558: 633–645

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Hartel C, Strunk T, Bucsky P, Schultz C (2004) Effects of vitamin C on intracytoplasmic cytokine production in human whole blood monocytes and lymphocytes. Cytokine 27: 101–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Devaney B, Ziegler P, Pac S, Karwe V, Barr SI (2004) Nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers. J Am Diet Assoc 104: s14–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Lee CY, Man-Fan Wan J (2000) Vitamin E supplementation improves cell-mediated immunity and oxidative stress of Asian men and women. J Nutr 130: 2932–2937

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Malmberg KJ, Lenkei R, Petersson M, Ohlum T, Ichihara F, Glimelius B, Frodin JE, Masucci G, Kiessling R (2002) A short-term dietary supplementation of high doses of vitamin E increases T helper 1 cytokine production in patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Clin Cancer Res 8: 1772–1778

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Pighetti GM, Eskew ML, Reddy CC, Sordillo LM (1998) Selenium and vitamin E deficiency impair transferrin receptor internalization but not IL-2, IL-2 receptor, or transferrin receptor expression. J Leukoc Biol 63: 131–137

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Tsoureli-Nikita E, Hercogova J, Lotti T, Menchini G (2002) Evaluation of dietary intake of vitamin E in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: a study of the clinical course and evaluation of the immunoglobulin E serum levels. Int J Dermatol 41: 146–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Lagrange-Puget M, Durieu I, Ecochard R, Abbas-Chorfa F, Drai J, Steghens JP, Pacheco Y, Vital-Durand D, Bellon G (2004) Longitudinal study of oxidative status in 312 cystic fibrosis patients in stable state and during bronchial exacerbation. Pediatr Pulmonol 38: 43–49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Marodi L (2002) Deficient interferon-gamma receptor-mediated signaling in neonatal macrophages. Acta Paediatr (Suppl) 91: 117–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Nesin M, Cunningham-Rundles S (2000) Cytokines and neonates. Am J Perinatol 17: 393–404

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Marodi L, Kaposzta R, Nemes E (2000) Survival of group B streptococcus type III in mononuclear phagocytes: differential regulation of bacterial killing in cord macrophages by human recombinant gamma interferon and granulocytemacrophage colony-stimulating factor. Infect Immun 68: 2167–2170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Shah D, Sachdev HP (2001) Effect of gestational zinc deficiency on pregnancy outcomes: summary of observation studies and zinc supplementation trials. Br J Nutr 85(Suppl 2): S101–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Kaur S, Thami GP, Kanwar AJ (2002) Acrodermatitis enteropathica in a full-term breast-fed infant. Indian J Pediatr 69: 631–633

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Kraus TA, Toy L, Chan L, Childs J, Cheifetz A, Mayer L (2004) Failure to induce oral tolerance in Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis patients: possible genetic risk. Ann NY Acad Sci 1029: 225–238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Maeda S, Hsu LC, Liu H, Bankston LA, Iimura M, Kagnoff MF, Eckmann L, Karin M (2005) Nod2 mutation in Crohn’s disease potentiates NF-kappaB activity and IL-1beta processing. Science 307: 734–738

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Catassi C, Fasano A (2004) Celiac disease as a cause of growth retardation in childhood. Curr Opin Pediatr 16: 445–449

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Hozyasz KK, Chelchowska M, Laskowska-Klita T (2003) [Vitamin E levels in patients with celiac disease.] Med Wieku Rozwoj 7: 593–604

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. D’Amico MA, Holmes J, Stavropoulos SN, Frederick M, Levy J, DeFelice AR, Kazlow PG, Green PH (2005) Presentation of pediatric celiac disease in the United States: prominent effect of breastfeeding. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 44: 249–258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Steinkamp G, Wiedemann B (2002) Relationship between nutritional status and lung function in cystic fibrosis: cross sectional and longitudinal analyses from the German CF quality assurance (CFQA) project. Thorax 57: 596–601

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Best K, McCoy K, Gemma S, Disilvestro RA (2004) Copper enzyme activities in cystic fibrosis before and after copper supplementation plus or minus zinc. Metabolism 53: 37–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Akanli L, Lowenthal DB, Gjonaj S, Dozor AJ (2003) Plasma and red blood cell zinc in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 35: 2–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Zhang Z, Lai HJ (2004) Comparison of the use of body mass index percentiles and percentage of ideal body weight to screen for malnutrition in children with cystic fibrosis. Am J Clin Nutr 80: 982–991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Bjorksten B, Sepp E, Julge K, Voor T, Mikelsaar M (2001) Allergy development and the intestinal microflora during the first year of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 108: 516–520

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Kalliomaki M, Kirjavainen P, Eerola E, Kero P, Salminen S, Isolauri E (2001) Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 107: 129–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Holt BJ, Smallacombe TB, Loh R, Sly PD, Holt PG (1998) Transplacental priming of the human immune system to environmental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J Immunol 160: 4730–4737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Karlsson MR, Rugtveit J, Brandtzaeg P (2004) Allergen-responsive CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in children who have outgrown cow’s milk allergy. J Exp Med 199: 1679–1688

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Capano G, Guandalini S, Guarino A, Caprioli A, Falbo V, Giraldi V, Ruggeri FM, Vairano P, Vegnente A, Vairo U et al (1984) Enteric infections, cow’s milk intolerance and parenteral infections in 118 consecutive cases of acute diarrhoea in children. Eur J Pediatr 142: 281–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Donnet-Hughes A, Duc N, Serrant P, Vidal K, Schiffrin EJ (2000) Bioactive molecules in milk and their role in health and disease: the role of transforming growth factor-beta. Immunol Cell Biol 78: 74–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Euler AR, Mitchell DK, Kline R, Pickering LK (2005) Prebiotic effect of fructo-oligosaccharide supplemented term infant formula at two concentrations compared with unsupplemented formula and human milk. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 40: 157–164

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Koskinen S (1996) Long-term follow-up of health in blood donors with primary selective IgA deficiency. J Clin Immunol 16: 165–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Jarvinen KM, Laine ST, Jarvenpaa AL, Suomalainen HK (2000) Does low IgA in human milk predispose the infant to development of cow’s milk allergy? Pediatr Res 48: 457–462

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Rautava S, Isolauri E (2004) Cow’s milk allergy in infants with atopic eczema is associated with aberrant production of interleukin-4 during oral cow’s milk challenge. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 39: 529–535

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Munoz P, Sanchez-Somolinos M, Alcala L, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Pelaez T, Bouza E (2005) Candida krusei fungaemia: antifungal susceptibility and clinical presentation of an uncommon entity during 15 years in a single general hospital. J Antimicrob Chemother 55: 188–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Corazza GR, Ginaldi L, Furia N, Marani-Toro G, Di Giammartino D, Quaglino D (1997) The impact of HIV infection on lactose absorptive capacity. J Infect 35: 31–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Stephenson LS (1994) Helminth parasites, a major factor in malnutrition. World Health Forum 15: 169–172

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Gendrel D, Richard-Lenoble D, Kombila M, Dupont C, Moreno JL, Gendrel C, Nardou M, Chaussain M (1992) Influence of intestinal parasitism on lactose absorption in well-nourished African children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 46: 137–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Nova E, Samartin S, Gomez S, Morande G, Marcos A (2002) The adaptive response of the immune system to the particular malnutrition of eating disorders. Eur J Clin Nutr 56(Suppl 3): S34–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Monteleone P, Martiadis V, Colurcio B, Maj M (2002) Leptin secretion is related to chronicity and severity of the illness in bulimia nervosa. Psychosom Med 64: 874–879

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Dagogo-Jack S, Tykodi G, Umamaheswaran I (2005) Inhibition of cortisol biosynthesis decreases circulating leptin levels in obese humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: 5333–5335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Levin BE (2005) Factors promoting and ameliorating the development of obesity. Physiol Behav 86: 633–639

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Wernstedt I, Eriksson AL, Berndtsson A, Hoffstedt J, Skrtic S, Hedner T, Hulten LM, Wiklund O, Ohlsson C, Jansson JO (2004) A common polymorphism in the interleukin-6 gene promoter is associated with overweight. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28: 1272–1279

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Backhed F, Ding H, Wang T, Hooper LV, Koh GY, Nagy A, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI (2004) The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 15718–15723

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Bornstein SR, Licinio J, Tauchnitz R, Engelmann L, Negrao AB, Gold P, Chrousos GP (1998) Plasma leptin levels are increased in survivors of acute sepsis: associated loss of diurnal rhythm, in cortisol and leptin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83: 280–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Otero M, Lago R, Gomez R, Dieguez C, Lago F, Gomez-Reino J, Gualillo O (2006) Towards a pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory emerging role of leptin. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45: 944–950

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Dhurandhar NV (2004) Contribution of pathogens in human obesity. Drug News Perspect 17: 307–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Schwarzwald H (2005) Illnesses among recently immigrated children. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 16: 78–83

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Salas SD, Heifetz R, Barrett-Connor E (1990) Intestinal parasites in Central American immigrants in the United States. Arch Intern Med 150: 1514–1516

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Barker D, Younger N, MooSang M, McKenzie CA (2004) HIV serostatus and recovery from severe childhood malnutrition. A retrospective matched casecontrol study. West Indian Med J 53: 89–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Guarino A, Spagnuolo MI, Giacomet V, Canani RB, Bruzzese E, Giaquinto C, Roggero P, Plebani A, Gattinara GC (2002) Effects of nutritional rehabilitation on intestinal function and on CD4 cell number in children with HIV. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 34: 366–371

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Johann-Liang R, O’Neill L, Cervia J, Haller I, Giunta Y, Licholai T, Noel GJ (2000) Energy balance, viral burden, insulin-like growth factor-1, interleukin-6 and growth impairment in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. AIDS 14: 683–690

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Baum MK, Miguez-Burbano MJ, Campa A, Shor-Posner G (2000) Selenium and interleukins in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 182(Suppl 1): S69–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Hunter D, Renjifo B, Antelman G, Bang H, Manji K, Kapiga S, Mwakagile D, Essex M et al (2002) Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding and early child mortality. AIDS 16: 1935–1944

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Hotta M, Nagashima E, Takagi S, Itoda I, Numata T, Kobayashi N, Takano K (2004) Two young female patients with anorexia nervosa complicated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Intern Med 43: 440–444

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Miller LC (2005) International adoption: infectious diseases issues. Clin Infect Dis 40: 286–293

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Starke JR, Correa AG (1995) Management of mycobacterial infection and disease in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14: 455–469; quiz 469—470

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Waters WR, Palmer MV, Nonnecke BJ, Whipple DL, Horst RL (2004) Mycobacterium bovis infection of vitamin D-deficient NOS2-/- mice. Microb Pathog 36: 11–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Boelaert JR, Gordeuk VR (2002) Protein energy malnutrition and risk of tuberculosis infection. Lancet 360: 1102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Chan J, Tian Y, Tanaka KE, Tsang MS, Yu K, Salgame P, Carroll D, Kress Y, Teitelbaum R, Bloom BR (1996) Effects of protein calorie malnutrition on tuberculosis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 14857–14861

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Cliffe LJ, Humphreys NE, Lane TE, Potten CS, Booth C, Grencis RK (2005) Accelerated intestinal epithelial cell turnover: a new mechanism of parasite expulsion. Science 308: 1463–1465

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Rivera MT, De Souza AP, Araujo-Jorge TC, De Castro SL, Vanderpas J (2003) Trace elements, innate immune response and parasites. Clin Chem Lab Med 41: 1020–1025

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Hagel I, Lynch NR, Puccio F, Rodriguez O, Luzondo R, Rodriguez P, Sanchez P, Cabrera CM, Di Prisco MC (2003) Defective regulation of the protective IgE response against intestinal helminth Ascaris lumbricoides in malnourished children. J Trop Pediatr 49: 136–142

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Nussenblatt V, Semba RD (2002) Micronutrient malnutrition and the pathogenesis of malarial anemia. Acta Trop 82: 321–337

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Slowik MK, Jhaveri R (2005) Hepatitis B and C viruses in infants and young children. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 16: 296–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. England K, Pembrey L, Tovo PA, Newell ML (2005) Growth in the first 5 years of life is unaffected in children with perinatally-acquired hepatitis C infection. J Pediatr 147: 227–232

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Palomba E, Manzini P, Fiammengo P, Maderni P, Saracco G, Tovo PA (1996) Natural history of perinatal hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 23: 47–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Gonzalez-Peralta RP, Kelly DA, Haber B, Molleston J, Murray KF, Jonas MM, Shelton M, Mieli-Vergani G, Lurie Y, Martin S et al (2005) Interferon alfa-2b in combination with ribavirin for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in children: efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics. Hepatology 42: 1010–1018

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Manguso F, D’Ambra G, Menchise A, Sollazzo R, D’Agostino L (2005) Effects of an appropriate oral diet on the nutritional status of patients with HCV-related liver cirrhosis: a prospective study. Clin Nutr 24: 751–759

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics Host Defenses Program, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY, 10021, USA

    Susanna Cunningham-Rundles & Deborah Ho Lin

Authors
  1. Susanna Cunningham-Rundles
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Deborah Ho Lin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Department of General Pediatrics, University Children’s Hospital, Moorenstr. 5, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Horst Schroten

  2. Children’s Hospital HELIOS Klinikum, Witten-Herdecke University, Heusnerstr. 40, 42283, Wuppertal, Germany

    Stefan Wirth

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Birkhäuser Verlag Basel/Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cunningham-Rundles, S., Lin, D.H. (2007). Malnutrition and infection in industrialized countries. In: Schroten, H., Wirth, S. (eds) Pediatric Infectious Diseases Revisited. Birkhäuser Advances in Infectious Diseases. Birkhäuser Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8099-1_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation