Energy and Fat Compensation During Long Term Consumption of Reduced Fat Products

doi:10.1006/appe.1997.0097

Appetite

Volume 29, Issue 3, December 1997, Pages 305-323

https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1997.0097 Get rights and content

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the behavioral response to the long term realistic consumption of reduced fat products. During six months, a control group of 103 subjects had free access to about 45 commercially available full-fat products, and a reduced-fat group of 117 subjects had access to the reduced fat equivalents. These experimental products covered about 37% of total energy intake in the control group and 30% of energy intake in the reduced fat group. Other non–experimental food products were bought in regular shops. The results showed that, compared to a baseline measurement before the start of the study, energy intake increased from 10.4 MJ/day to 11.2 MJ/d in the control group, whereas it remained constant at 10.2 MJ/d in the reduced fat group. Fat intake in the control group increased from 99 g/d (35·6 en%) to 123g/d (40·6 en%), whereas fat intake in the reduced fat group decreased from 95 g/d (34·7 en%) to 90 g/d (32·7 en%). The energy and fat intake from experimental products was lower in the reduced fat group (3.1 MJ/d, 37 g fat/d) than in the control group (4.2 MJ/d, 71 g fat/d). There was some compensatory response in the consumption of experimental products: the ingested amount of experimental products was about 10% higher in the reduced fat group (447 g/d) than in the control group (399 g/d) [t=2.6;p<0.01]. There was no compensatory response in the consumption of non-experimental products. Both the control and reduced fat group consumed about 7.1 MJ/d and 53 g fat/d from non–experimental products. It is concluded that long term consumption of reduced fat products leads to a lower energy and fat intake, compared to the consumption of full-fat products.

References (54)

P.P. Basiotis et al.
Sources of variation in energy intake by men and women as determined from one year's dietary records
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1989)
L.L. Birch et al.
Children's lunch intake: effects of midmorning snacks varying in energy density and fat content
Appetite
(1993)
L.L. Birch et al.
Effects of a nonenergy fat substitute on children's energy and macronutrient intake
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1993)
J.E. Blundell et al.
Dietary fat and the control of energy intake: evaluating the effects of fat on meal size and postmeal satiety
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1993)
D.A. Booth et al.
Starch content of ordinary foods associatively conditions human appetite and satiation, indexed by intake and eating pleasantness of starch-paired flavours
Appetite
(1982)
F.A. Caputo et al.
Human dietary response to covert manipulations of energy, fat, and carbohydrate in a midday meal
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1992)
C. de Graaf et al.
Short term effects of different amounts of protein, fats and carbohydrates on satiety
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1992)
J. de Vries et al.
Understimation of energy intake by 3-d records compared with energy intake to maintain body weight in 269 nonobese adults
American Journal Clinical Nutrition
(1994)
A. Drewnowski et al.
Comparing the effects of aspartame and sucrose on motivational ratings, taste preferences, and energy intakes in humans
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1994)
K.H. Duncan et al.
The effect of low and high energy diets on satiety, energy intake and eating time of obese and nonobese subjects
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
(1983)

R.W. Foltin et al.

Caloric compensation for lunches varying in fat and carbohydrate content by humans in a residential laboratory

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1990)

R.W. Foltin et al.

Caloric, but not macronutrient, compensation by humans for required-eating occasion with meals and snacks varying in fat and carbohydrate

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1992)

S.J. Gatenby et al.

Nutritional implication of reduced–fat food use by free living consumers

Appetite

(1995)

A.A. Geliebter

Effects of equicaloric loads of protein, fat, and carbohydrate on food intake in the rat and man

Physiology and Behavior

(1979)

S.L. Gorbach et al.

Changes in food patterns during a low-fat dietary intervention in women

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

(1990)

T. Hulshof et al.

The effects of preloads varying in physical state and fat content on satiety and energy intake

Appetite

(1993)

A. Kendall et al.

Weight loss on a low-fat diet: consequence of the imprecision of the control of food intake in humans

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1991)

H.R. Kissileff

Satiating efficiency and a strategy for conducting loading experiments

Neuroscience Biobehavioural Reviews

(1984)

H. Lee-Han et al.

Compliance in a randomized clinical trail of dietary fat reduction in patients with breast dysplasia

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1988)

L. Lissner et al.

Dietary fat and the regulation of energy intake in humans

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1987)

L. Lissner et al.

Body composition and energy intake: do overweight women overeat or underreport

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1989)

J. Louis-Sylvestre et al.

Learned caloric adjustment of human intake

Appetite

(1989)

R.D. Mattes et al.

Daily caloric intake of normal weight adults: response to changes in dietary energy density of a luncheon meal

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1988)

R.D. Mattes

Fat preference and adherence to a reduced-fat diet

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1993)

W. Mertz et al.

What are people really eating? The relationship between energy intake derived from estimated diet records and intake determined to maintain body weight

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

(1991)

P. Pietinen et al.

Dietary intervention study among 30 free-living families in Finland

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

(1984)

Cited by (22)

Multisensory Flavor Perception
2015, Cell
Citation Excerpt :
That said, longer-term follow-up studies are still needed to really know how long-lasting some of these crossmodal effects are likely to be (cf., De Graaf et al., 1997), keeping in mind the fact that any multisensory interactions in flavor perception need to be considered within the wider context of branding, labeling, packaging, pricing, and other more cognitive factors that both constrain and influence our everyday experience of food and drink.
The perception of flavor is perhaps the most multisensory of our everyday experiences. The latest research by psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists increasingly reveals the complex multisensory interactions that give rise to the flavor experiences we all know and love, demonstrating how they rely on the integration of cues from all of the human senses. This Perspective explores the contributions of distinct senses to our perception of food and the growing realization that the same rules of multisensory integration that have been thoroughly explored in interactions between audition, vision, and touch may also explain the combination of the (admittedly harder to study) flavor senses. Academic advances are now spilling out into the real world, with chefs and food industry increasingly taking the latest scientific findings on board in their food design.
Trustworthy satiety claims are good for science and society. Comment on 'Satiety. No way to slim'
2011, Appetite
Citation Excerpt :
Fat may therefore lead to a passive overconsumption of energy (e.g. Blundell et al., 1996; Kendall et al., 1991; Lissner et al., 1989; Viskaal-van Dongen, Kok, & de Graaf, 2009). Fat intake is highly variable and may easily vary without being noticed (De Graaf et al., 1997). As fat is difficult to sense and easily over consumed, it makes sense to lower the fat content of foods in order to lower the energy content of the diet.
In their short communication against satiety claims, Booth and Nouwen (2010) neglect dozens of well designed studies that show consistent relations between satiety, energy intake and body weight. Satiety, intake and weight are separate concepts, that need different claims and evidence to support them. Satiety can be measured reliably. A repeated higher satiety response to a specific food compared to an appropriate control food may be valuable to consumers who want to avoid hunger. This is good for society. The development of the psycho-biological knowledge to achieve this is good for science. The lawmaker should provide the frame of reference for trustworthy satiety claims. It is then up to the consumer to decide the value of these claims.
Hunger and satiety: Relation to body weight control
2007, Novel Food Ingredients for Weight Control
Energy density and weight control
2005, Food, Diet and Obesity
Dietary fat and obesity: A review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies
2004, Physiology and Behavior
The First Law of Thermodynamics provides a framework for understanding the imbalance between energy intake and expenditure that produces obesity, but it does not help understand the role of genetics, the regulation of food intake, the distribution of body fat, the mechanisms by which diets work or the mechanism by which portion control has gotten out of control. In animals, increasing dietary fat increases body fat, and it is unlikely that humans escape this important biological rule. In epidemiological studies, increasing dietary fat is associated with increased prevalence of obesity probably by increasing the intake of energy dense foods. In the National Weight Loss Registry, three things were associated with weight loss: continued monitoring of food intake, lowering dietary fat intake, and increased exercise. The relation of dietary fat is most evident when physical activity is low. The speed of adaptation to dietary fat is increased by exercise. When dietary fat is reduced, weight is lost, but weight loss eventually plateaus. The rate of weight loss during the initial phase is about 1.6 g/day for each 1% decrease in fat intake. When dietary fat is replaced with olestra to reduce fat intake from 33% to 25% in obese men, weight loss continues for about 9 months reaching a maximum of nearly 6% of body weight and a loss of 18% of initial body fat. In the control group with a 25% reduced-fat diet, weight loss stopped after 3 months and was regained over the next 6 months, indicating the difficulty of adhering to a conventional low-fat diet. Thus, dietary fat is an important contributor to obesity in some people.
A general model of intake regulation
2002, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
Previously proposed models of intake regulation focus on specific variables thought to influence overall intake, and include factors involved in negative feedback loops with intake as well as genetic influences on intake. Recent evidence, however, suggests that these models although informative, are incomplete. They cannot account for the observations of prolonged and increasing deviations from defended levels, weakness and transitoriness of compensatory responses, the presence of powerful factors that are not compensated, and behavioral genetic data suggesting that there are a wide variety of independent genetic influences on numerous factors that influence intake. As a result we propose a new general model of intake regulation in which intake is influenced by both a set of uncompensated factors that are not influenced by intake and by a set of compensated factors that are. The preferred levels of intake and both sets of factors are specified as influenced by heredity. Further, the model includes impact factors, weights, which specify the magnitude of the effect each factor has on intake. The weights are assumed to be different for different individuals and their values are determined by heredity. A computer simulation of the new model demonstrated that it maintains different levels depending upon the external and internal environments, that changes in these environments result in new levels, and that inherited individual differences in responsiveness to these factors can markedly influence the levels obtained. The proposed general model appears to fit existing knowledge and is parsimonious and widely applicable. Future work should be directed to testing the general model and further developing specific models within the conceptual framework employing known physiological systems and uncompensated stimuli.

View all citing articles on Scopus

^☆: Correspondence to: Cees de Graaf, Department of Human Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands.

View full text

Regular ArticleEnergy and Fat Compensation During Long Term Consumption of Reduced Fat Products☆

Abstract

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Appetite

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Appetite

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Appetite

Physiology and Behavior

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

Appetite

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Neuroscience Biobehavioural Reviews

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Appetite

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

Regular Article
Energy and Fat Compensation During Long Term Consumption of Reduced Fat Products☆