Abstract
The aim of the chapter is to explore the impact of armed conflicts and their consequences on victimization and offending of women and children, and the implications on how a State, international actors and civil society respond. First, the theoretical framework and an overview of available findings about the impact of war on crime is provided, with special emphasis on victimization and offending of women and children. Then, we present a detailed review and analysis of the situation in Serbia during and after armed conflicts on the territory of the former Yugoslavia. In the analysis of the Serbian situation, particular emphasis is put on the long-term impact of war on offending and victimization of women and children through domestic violence and trafficking in persons. In conclusion, the role of the State, civil society and international actors is assessed and recommendations for more timely and appropriate responses are offered.
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Notes
- 1.
How people (men) from former Yugoslavia were reluctant to engage in war is well illustrated by the picture of the average soldier in what was the Yugoslav National Army at the time of the brief war in Slovenia which was the beginning of the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia given by Sherwel: “Most are young conscripts who appear to have little idea what the fighting was about…Many of the captured soldiers are little older than schoolchildren whose paintings still adorn the walls. Several said they had no idea why they were ordered to seize border crossings and many admitted they had given up without firing a shot…The general view among 12 prisoners interviewed was that Yugoslavia’s problems have to be resolved without bloodshed” (Sherwell quoted by Korac 1994).
- 2.
It should not be ignored that, especially in recent civil wars, the number of male victims of sexual violence increased. Men and boys were raped in Bosnia, albeit much less often than women and girls (Gutman 1994; Mazowiecki Report 1993; Bassiouni Report 1994; Helsinki Watch 1993; quoted by Hague 1997, p. 53).
- 3.
Serbia has borders with Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, i.e. areas which were directly affected by ethnic war, while Kosovo, another directly affected area, was part of its own territory during the armed conflicts in it. Serbia was not directly affected by the wars in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Serbian government never recognized that Serbia was involved in these wars while men from Serbia went into battle and people suffered a lot of its (indirect) consequences. However, Serbia was more directly affected by the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, as well as by NATO air strikes during the Kosovo conflict.
- 4.
Social transformation in Serbia was blocked by wars, as well as by the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, UN sanctions and isolation of the country, which led to the end of communist rule no earlier than the year 2000. As a result of ethnic conflicts in neighbouring countries (which were at their peak in 1993), economic sanctions imposed in 1992 and NATO bombing in 1999, Serbia faced a deep economic crisis. In 1993, the country was hit by enormous inflation, which had disastrous effects in terms of both impoverishment of large parts of the population and severe social differentiation, i.e. concentration of assets and power in the hands of the ruling elite and those close to it (G17Plus 2000, pp. 49–50). NATO bombing, with its enormous destruction of plants and infrastructure, also caused large-scale economic damage to the country’s already weak economy and returned it to an even more backward state than it was before.
- 5.
Every second citizen of Yugoslavia possesses firearms (“Vreme prokriminalne kulture”, 1995).
- 6.
This is vividly shown in famous Serbian movie Rane (Wounds) directed by Srdjan Dragojević.
- 7.
This was the year when the war in Bosnia was culminating, as well as the year when FRY reached the enormous inflation rate and the level of crime reached its highest point.
- 8.
Similarly, as pointed out by Kelly, during the Gulf War women told stories of their husbands dressing in army uniforms before beating them, frequently after watching the TV news (Kelly 2000, p.59).
- 9.
Connell’s notion of “hegemonic masculinity” and “emphasized femininity” as the culturally idealized forms of gender in a given historical setting. These forms, as further elaborated by James Messerschmidt are “culturally honored, glorified and extolled at the symbolic level in the mass media”. “In Western industrialized societies”, as stressed by the same author, “hegemonic masculinity is characterized by work in the paid labor market, the subordination of women and girls, heterosexism and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men, and underscores practices toward authority, control and aggressiveness”. Emphasized femininity is a form that complements hegemonic masculinity and is defined by Connell through compliance with men’s desire for titillation and ego stroking and acceptance of marriage and childcare, and on a mass level is “organized around the themes of sexual receptivity in relation to younger women and motherhood in relation to older women” (Connell 1993).
- 10.
- 11.
Human Rights Watch World Report (2001).
- 12.
For example, criminal gangs buy women from recruiters for small amounts of money such as 50–150 $ and resell them for 5000 $ and more.
- 13.
A good illustration for that is found in the expansion of sex industry in Serbia during NATO bombing 1999.
- 14.
Jane’s Intelligence Weekly, 1 September 2000.
- 15.
“Montenegro to crack down on human trafficking”, The Associated Press, December 11, 2000, received through STOP-TRAFFIC @friends-partners.org list on December 11, 2000.
- 16.
Serbia participated for the first time in this international survey. Vesna Nikolic-Ristanovic is national coordinator of the survey for Republic of Serbia, while Ljiljana Stevkovic is survey assistant. The data presented in this chapter are preliminary findings of the ISRD3 Serbia.
- 17.
Serbia for the first time participated in this international survey. Vesna Nikolic-Ristanovic is national coordinator of the survey for Republic of Serbia, while Ljiljana Stevkovic is survey assistant. The data presented in this chapter are preliminary findings of the ISRD3 Serbia.
- 18.
Ljiljana Stevkovic carried out her PhD quantitative survey as a part of ISRD3 Serbia survey.
- 19.
Private military companies provide an assortment of services to the armed forces and the US government as well as to foreign governments and international organizations, and it is a rapidly growing business. In just ten years, the private military industry has grown from a handful of companies to hundreds, with its income rising from millions of dollars a year to an estimated $100 billion a year (source: http:/salon.com/news/featiue/2002/06/26/bosnia.print.html). As stated in the report from the Turin 2002 Conference on Trafficking, Slavery and Peacekeeping, private contractors supplementing or overseeing the staffing requirements for the peacekeeping operation on behalf of some Member States or providing them with services, equipment and/or supplies, are found to be directly involved in trafficking of women from Eastern Europe (Picarelli 2002).
- 20.
The trends are based on the data about identified victims, whose number changed over time, but stayed all the time very low.
- 21.
http://www.mup.gov.rs/cms_lat/sadrzaj.nsf/zrtve-i-zastita-zrtava.h, retrieved on 18 August 2014
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Nikolic-Ristanovic, V., Stevkovic, L. (2016). Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: The Impact of Armed Conflict and Post-Conflict Period Challenges. In: Kury, H., Redo, S., Shea, E. (eds) Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_21
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